In 1996, Greenpeace began an investigation into soft PVC toys. What we uncovered was startling. We found that soft PVC toys can contain hazardous chemicals, sometimes in substantial quantities and that these chemicals can leach out of the toys. Further investigation revealed that some of these chemicals, called phthalates, have not been thoroughly studied to assess hazard.
Next, we contacted and met with the International Council of Toy Manufacturers, only to discover that toy manufacturers do not believe that a safety concern exists. European governments and toy retailers, however, are taking the issue seriously and have begun to take action.
This briefing paper focuses on one PVC product group - toys. The paper provides information about the potential hazards of PVC toys during use and about alternative materials for specific applications.
PVC - AN ENVIRONMENTAL POISON
Given current scientific knowledge, coupled with the precautionary principle, Greenpeace believes that the manufacture of PVC products should be phased out. The weight of the scientific evidence demonstrates that polyvinyl chloride plastic poses unacceptable hazards to humans and the environment throughout its lifecycle (manufacture, use, and disposal). Furthermore, alternative materials are readily available to replace PVC in most applications.
The lifecycle hazards of PVC include:
LEACHING AND TOXICITY OF PVC PLASTICIZERS
The emerging science on the hazards of plasticizers used in soft PVC products provides substantive evidence that soft PVC presents unacceptable risks during use. Additives, such as plasticizers and stabilizers, are a necessary component of all PVC formulations. Without these additives, PVC is brittle, degrades easily, and is unversatile. Softeners are not chemically bound to the PVC polymer, but rather float around the polymer, like water in a sponge, giving the plastic the flexibility required.
As a result, it is evident that plasticizers used in PVC will leach, volatilize, or migrate from a product over time. This has long been recognized by the PVC industry itself. Pressure on a PVC product will increase leaching substantially. Of most concern is the leaching of plasticizers resulting from sucking or chewing on soft PVC toys, representing a direct bodily dose of these chemicals to the infant or child. The main group of plasticizers used in PVC, the phthalate esters or phthalates, are the most abundant human-made class of chemicals found in the environment. More than 90% of phthalates are used in PVC production. As a class, the phthalates are moderately persistent and can bioaccumulate in fat tissue. Some may be broken down in the body, although degradation and excretion rates may differ between adults and children. In addition, phthalates absorb strongly to soil, and biodegrade slowly, creating the potential for constant human exposure.
Phthalates can exert additive effects when present as mixtures or in combination with other common environmental contaminants. Many of the phthalates are actually isomers of compounds of a similar carbon chain length. As a result, a single phthalate formulation may be contaminated with several different types of phthalates. Also, a single phthalate may differ in qualities from producer to producer or even batch to batch.
Laboratory research on the health effects of the phthalates has identified wide-ranging chronic effects.
These include:
Clearly, exposure of children to such chemicals presents unacceptable and avoidable risks. Compared to adults, children may be at risk of suffering greater effects from exposure to chemicals due to their increased intestinal absorbability, increased skin absorption, increased cell turnover in the liver, and less developed protection and communication mechanisms between the brain, the gonads and other parts of the body.
Although historically the most commonly used plasticizer in toys, di (2 ethylhexyl) phthalate, DEHP, was voluntarily withdrawn by many toy manufacturers selling products in the US, when the International Agency for Research on Cancer declared DEHP a probable human carcinogen in the 1982. This action was taken in response to the US Consumer Product Safety Commission's (CPSC) investigation into the hazard to children of DEHP in toys. Market reports have shown that uses of DEHP have been replaced predominantly by diisononyl phthalate (DINP), which has been shown to produce tumors and other chronic effects in laboratory animals.
Studies conducted by CP Hall, a manufacturer of phthalates, showed that the most common phthalates do leach from PVC. A study by the CPSC has shown specificially that DEHP can leach from toys. Furthermore, a Health Canada study concluded that exposure to such toys could add substantially to the daily intake of phthalates by children.
PVC PLASTICIZERS AND ENDOCRINE DISRUPTION
An emerging concern about the phthalate esters is their ability to disrupt the endocrine, or hormone, system.
Several scientific studies have demonstrated that some phthalates, including butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and diisononyl phthalate (DINP), are capable of binding to the estrogen receptor in human cell lines and of mimicking the action of estrogen.
The Association of European Toy Manufacturing Industries have stated:
"In vitro tests in laboratory test tubes as well as the more relevant in vivo studies have yielded no evidence that the most common, commercially significant phthalates produce any endocrine modulating effects or display estrogenic activity."
Recent research has show this to be demonstrably untrue. A paper published in August 1997 has demonstrated that DINP, perhaps the most commonly used phthalate in soft PVC toys, does show estrogenic activity in in vitro tests with human cell cultures.
We know that the endocrine system is an extremely sensitive chemical messenger system (sensitive in the range of parts per trillion), which regulates important bodily functions such as: development of the embryo, cell programming, organ development, brain function and behavior, growth, metabolism, stress response, and immune system functions. Concerns over the ability of chemicals to interfere with hormones stems from observations in animals or in cloned cells. Nevertheless, the close similarities between the hormone system in humans and animals suggest that effects in animals may give important indications of potential impacts in humans.
The effects of endocrine disruption are often subtle and may not be observed until the next generation. Known or suspected effects of endocrine disruption, include: damage or abnormalities to the reproductive tract or organs, reduced and damaged sperm, infertility, immune suppression, spontaneous abortions, reduction in cognitive abilities, and teratogenicity.
ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS FOR PVC IN TOYS
A variety of alternative materials exist for PVC toys. This survey is by no means exhaustive and does not include a thorough analysis of product safety issues associated with alternative polymers. Greenpeace is not endorsing any of these materials. However, research indicates that there are readily available, cost-competitive alternatives to PVC in toy production. In some cases, these alternatives are already replacing PVC in toys applications.
Uses of PVC in toys can also be replaced with traditional materials such as wood, cloth and natural rubber. These alternative materials were often used for toys before the rapid increase in plastics use and should be considered among the best alternatives.
This analysis has focused primarily on uses of PVC in "soft" toys, such as inflatable toys, teethers and squeeze toys, dolls, etc. Hard PVC applications, such as block letters, can be directly and immediately substituted with numerous alternatives (e.g., polyethylene and polypropylene).
The alternatives to PVC can be divided into thermoplastic and elastomeric alternatives. Many of the alternatives are co-polymers (two different polymers linked together) or alloys/blends (polymer mixtures). Alternatives can be further divided by the type of application sought and the processing method. In general, design requirements and characteristics for the product (e.g., colorfastness, stability), as well as ease of processing and cost will drive the choice of material.
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastic Elastomers (TME)
An elastomer is a material which exhibits rubber-like properties of high extensibility and flexibility, is available in a wide range of hardness, and has the ability to snap back quickly after being extended to at least twice its length. The thermoplastic elastomers in general have very good flexibility, high tensile strength, are compatible with a wide range of colors, are relatively easy to process, and do not require plasticizers. Traditional thermoplastics can be added to elastomers to increase impact resistance or tear strength.
SUMMARY
Given scientific evidence regarding the chronic effects of PVC plasticizers in laboratory studies, the potential high exposure and the increased vulnerability of children to the effects of chemicals, and the emerging science of endocrine disruption, the weight of evidence indicates that the use of PVC in children's toys presents unacceptable and avoidable hazards.
Furthermore, the well known chronic effects of dioxin, inherent in PVC production and in the disposal of PVC products via incineration in the municipal solid waste stream, also present an unacceptable environmental and public health risk associated with PVC production.
Action to eliminate PVC use in toys is now warranted to prevent children's direct and indirect exposure to these hazards.