This report outlines the serious environmental problems that result from the manufacture, use and disposal of PVC. But there are practical steps that can be taken today to tackle this threat. Architects, local authorities, civil engineers and developers can choose not to specify PVC but to specify more environmentally acceptable alternatives. Many companies, national and local governments, and communities are already making that choice. This report outlines some of these progressive steps and describes the alternative building materials that are available now to replace PVC in all new and refurbished building and construction projects.

We are not suggesting that the alternatives presented here do not have an impact on the environment. However, the crucial point is that eliminating PVC, through a switch to alternatives, represents tangible progress towards protection of the global environment and human health. This move can have wider benefits; just as eliminating CFCs - ozone depleting chemicals - led to greater innovation in the search for and implementation of environmentally acceptable alternatives.

The supplement to building the future gives a list of suppliers of these alternatives, which has been compiled by the Association of Environmentally Conscious Builders. It aims to be as comprehensive as possible, but there are undoubtedly some products and company contacts missing. Greenpeace supports a switch to these alternatives, but does not endorse any single product or company.

This is a practical guide; please let Greenpeace know of your progress in taking steps to deal with the environmental threat of PVC by choosing better alternatives.

Greenpeace, October 1996

The centrepiece of the year 2000 Olympics, the Sydney Olympic Stadium, is being designed to minimise the use of PVC plastic. Germany's capital city, Bonn has recently agreed far-reaching restrictions on the use of PVC in public buildings. Many local councils all over Europe have already restricted the use of PVC in building projects. In Sweden, the Government has agreed to phase out the use of PVC. Why is PVC being replaced in buildings from Sydney to Gothenburg ?

This report seeks to answer this question by explain-ing the environmental concerns over PVC plastic. It also shows how this material can be easily replaced in new building design or refurbishment of offices, restaurants, hospitals and housing.

Although you may already be aware of the problems associated with PVC in accidental fires in buildings, the production, use and disposal of PVC also results in the creation and release of large amounts of toxic chemicals. These substances end up in the environment, adding to the level of persistent toxic chemicals which are building up in the air, soil and water, in the food chain and in our bodies.

At the same time, there is increasing scientific evidence to suggest that the exposure of wildlife to chemicals in the environment has resulted in widespread problems, including immune system damage and cancer. New evidence suggests that some of these chemicals can disrupt the hormonal system of animals in the wild, causing infertility, reproductive difficulties and developmental problems for their offspring.

There is increasing concern that the trends which are being observed in humans world-wide - which include decreased sperm counts, increased incidence of testicular cancers, deformities of the reproductive organs and rapidly increasing rates of breast cancer - may also be linked to our exposure to man-made hormone-disrupting chemicals in the environment.

Not only are many of the chemicals used to make PVC toxic and carcinogenic but PVC is also an important source of two chemicals known to be hormone disruptors: dioxin and phthalates. Dioxin is one of the most toxic chemicals known to man and is inextricably linked to the PVC production process.

Greenpeace believes that the best way to begin to reduce the widespread contamination of the environment and our bodies is to replace PVC with other materials, and end its production.

It is possible to specify alternatives to all the major uses of PVC in buildings, whether it be in flooring, underground drainage or cabling. Greenpeace calls on all those involved in making decisions about building materials to specify alternatives to PVC in homes, offices and public buildings. A change from PVC building materials to alternative products means real progress towards protection of the global environment and human health.

The decision to move away from PVC has already been taken by many local authorities, institutions and architects outside the UK. Most significantly, the Swedish Parliament made a commitment in November 1995 to a total phase-out of soft PVC and rigid PVC with harmful additives. One hundred and twenty eight communities in Sweden, including Gothenburg, have already implemented restrictions on the use of PVC in public buildings.

In May 1996, two of Sweden's leading constuction companies, JM and Svenska Bostder, announced that they are phasing out their use of PVC. Other major Swedish construction companies, NCC, SIAB and Skanka plan to follow. SIAB's environmental director Eva Mensson said "I don't think anyone in the construction business today believes there is a future for PVC". In Australia, the Olympic Building Programme for the year 2000 Olympics has chosen to avoid all chlorine compounds including PVC wherever possible. The Australian Stadium 2000 Consortium which won the competition to design, construct and build Sydney's Olympic 110,000 seater stadium included a number of environmental features in its proposal, including a commitment to minimise the use of PVC. In particular the Consortium is committed to using alternatives to PVC in plumbing, drainage and flooring materials for the project.

The Austrian city of Linz has recently achieved an 85% PVC phase-out in public buildings. Six of the nine regional governments in Austria have now placed restrictions on the use of PVC.

In February 1996, Germany's capital city, Bonn, agreed that PVC should be largely avoided in public buildings: schools, kindergardens, old people's homes and subway stations. In Berlin, over 130 public buildings have been built since 1989, with restrictions on the use of PVC.

Elsewhere in Germany, around 200 local authorities and six Federal States have agreed to restrictions on PVC use.

The Danish Government is currently considering restrictions on PVC by the year 2000.

Norway's second largest city, Bergen, made a decision in 1991 to phase out PVC in public buildings. Many new buildings and restoration projects have been completed since then with minimal use of PVC.

London Underground has now banned halogenated cables, which includes those made of PVC, from its underground stations as a result of concerns over fire hazards following the Kings Cross fire. In addition the underground systems in Vienna, Berlin and Dusseldorf no longer use PVC cables.

New building projects in Germany where large amounts of cabling are used, are often executed with PVC-free wiring, for example North German Television's studio in Hamburg.

In 1991, the Swedish furniture distributor IKEA announced it intended to phase out PVC in all products.1

Although it is not immediately obvious, a PVC pipe, floor tile or cable is the product of a highly polluting section of the chemical industry. From the processing of its raw materials through to its disposal, PVC creates environmental and human health problems.

The origins of these problems lie in the properties of the toxic chemicals that are used to make PVC plastic. The main group of chemicals are called organochlorines as they are derived from chlorine. They tend to be soluble in fat - not water - which means that once in the environment, they build up in the food chain.2 They are often highly persistent.3 Several types of chlorinated chemicals, other than the ones used to make PVC, have been banned, phased out or restricted, following the revelation of their environmental and human health effects. These include chemicals such as PCBs, CFCs and the pesticide DDT.

PVC is usually made by chlorinating ethylene (a product of the petrochemical industry ) to make ethylene dichloride (EDC). Not only is the chlorine gas itself highly toxic, but one of the manufacturers of this gas in the UK still uses a mercury-based technology which releases mercury to the environment.

This method of creating chlorine also creates dioxin residues, as does the production of EDC.

This process is also highly energy-intensive.

During the manufacture of EDC, large amounts of EDC are released to the atmosphere.

The production process creates thousands of tonnes of highly toxic, tarry wastes, which are also contaminated with significant amounts of dioxin4. Many other toxic organochlorines such as hexachlorobenzene are also created as by-products.5

Next, EDC is converted to vinyl chloride monomer (VCM). Some VCM gas is released into the air around VCM factories.

The VCM is then converted to poly vinyl chloride - PVC. Sometimes this process is carried out within the same factory, but frequently highly toxic and explosive VCM gas is transported all over the world to make PVC.

In order to transport VCM, this chemical gas has to be compressed and liquefied. Any leaks can lead to explosions. Large VCM fires are almost impossible to contain and pose enormous hazards to fire crews.6 Underground dumping

In the UK the highly contaminated wastes which result from making PVC are dumped in underground caverns in Cheshire. Nine thousand tonnes a year have been dumped for at least 30 years. It is estimated that the caverns now contain over 330,000 tonnes of toxic waste, including large amounts of dioxin.7 There are no guarantees that over time this underground dump will not leak. In a recent television documentary a geologist commented that toxic waste from the dump could be squeezed out into the surrounding land and water along the fractured surfaces between the salt layers.8 These wastes are so highly contaminated that any attempt to dispose of them, for example by incineration, will lead to the creation of other toxic by-products.

The manufacture of raw PVC is itself a highly polluting process, but more environmental problems are created by the extra toxic chemicals that are added to PVC to give it different qualities such as plasticity, fire-resistance etc. In many cases the final PVC product will contain relatively little raw PVC - additive chemicals acting as stabilizers, plasticisers, pigments, optical brighteners, flame retardants, biocides, fillers, foaming agents and lubricants can make up over 50% of the final product.9

One of the chemicals added to PVC to make it soft and plastic is the phthalate DEHP.

DEHP can enter the environment during the production and manufacturing process, it can leach from PVC products during use, and following disposal, DEHP may leach from discarded PVC products in landfills.10 DEHP is now widely distributed in the environment and can be found even in supposedly pristine areas such as Antarctica.11

PVC does not only create pollution during its production. It also creates problems during its disposal. A large amount of PVC packaging and discarded PVC products, such as old PVC cables or flooring, end up in municipal and hospital waste incinerators.

PVC is usually the main source of chlorine in the municipal waste stream and therefore is the main contributor to dioxin formation in incinerators.12

Several reports have found a direct relationship between the amount of PVC in waste fed into an incinerator and the amount of dioxin emitted.13 Dioxin from incinerators is widely distributed in the environment via contaminated ash, stack gases and waste water.

When PVC is landfilled, the various additives, such as DEHP, are susceptible to leaching.14 These chemicals can migrate through soil to contaminate groundwater.15

Recycling of PVC plastic is not the answer to the environmental problems that PVC creates during its production and life-cycle.

The potential for real recycling of PVC is extremely limited. The wide range of chemical additives added to PVC make it hard to create a consistent end product from the PVC plastics that have been collected. The sorting of PVC plastic for recycling is also complicated and expensive, especially when compared with the ease with which a material such as glass can be sorted. Virgin PVC also has to be added to most recycled PVC products.

In the recycling of post-consumer plastics, PVC can obstruct or damage the recycling of other plastics. Traces of PVC adhering to steel and copper can also create pollution problems during the recycling of these metals.16

There are major concerns about the human health impacts of dioxin which have been extensively studied by the US Environmental Protection Agency and other scientists. The latest findings on dioxin conclude that not only is dioxin a probable human carcinogen, but that it is also a powerful hormone disruptor. Studies in animals have shown that exposure to low doses of dioxin in the womb reduced the testosterone levels and sperm counts of male offspring.17

The production of PVC is inextricably linked to the creation of dioxin as a by-product. This is acknowledged by the industry itself.19 ICI's own figures also show that large amounts of dioxin are being created at its plant in Merseyside.20 Investigations outside the UK have shown that sediments from the River Rhine have increased concentrations of dioxin near a VCM plant in the Netherlands.21

The problem of dioxin production as a by-product of PVC manufacture and incineration is not just one of local contamination. Dioxins do not break down for decades, and because they are highly persistent they can spread far and wide in the environment and build up in the food chain, concentrating in those mammals - including humans - at the top. 22

Dioxin gets into the food chain either through the air, ending up on grass eaten by cows for example or into the marine food chain from discharges to rivers which end up in fish and marine mammals. Dioxins from ICI's Runcorn plant end up in the Mersey and the wider marine environment.23

The levels of dioxin in the UK environment - in our soil, water and food - already give cause for concern. If dioxin levels in the UK environment are to be reduced, then PVC production and incineration must be phased out. At the moment the best way to achieve this, in the absence of government action, is by starting to specify alternatives to PVC wherever possible.

Some phthalate chemicals which are used as plasticisers in soft PVC have already been identified as possible human carcinogens.24 Some have recently been identified as hormone disruptors which act by mimicking the female hormone oestrogen. Chemicals that act as oestrogen mimics can disrupt the development of the reproduction system in a foetus, if consumed by the mother at the critical period of pregnancy. DEHP, the plasticiser most used in PVC, belongs to this group of chemicals.25 DEHP is of concern because it is so widely distributed in the environment, making it possible for people to be exposed to high doses. Other plasticisers, also used in PVC, are also known to be oestrogen mimics.

Over the last hundred years, the PVC production process in the UK has been carried out largely in Merseyside, and has contributed to high mercury discharges to the River Mersey. For example, severe mercury contamination has affected Liverpool Bay.26 Fish have become contaminated27 and a number of commercially important species often exceed European guidelines.28 The Ministry of Agriculture advises anglers not to consume fish caught in the Mersey because of the levels of lead and mercury contamination.29

Toxic heavy metals such as lead and cadmium have been widely used as additives to PVC; in particular products such as PVC cladding and windows have traditionally contained heavy metals such as cadmium. These heavy metals may be released into the environment if the product is incinerated, burnt in an accidental fire or buried in a landfill.

Research on VCM, one of the building blocks of PVC, has linked it to: various cancers; angiosarcoma; increased incidence of liver, lung and brain tumours; and both male and female reproductive disturbance.30 Significant increases in congenital abnormalities have been reported in communities close to VCM plants.31

You may already be aware of some of the problems caused by PVC in fires.

The UK's Fire Brigade Union is concerned about the safety of PVC building materials such as cables and flooring in the event of a fire, both in terms of the toxicity of the smoke produced and the destructive effects of hydrochloric acid on building structure.

A fire at Dusseldorf Airport in April 1996 caused the death of 16 people. The fire started when PVC cables were ignited by sparks from a welder's torch. Toxic gases such as hydrogen chloride were created. Large parts of the airport were later found to be contaminated with high levels of dioxins and furans. The local environment authority said that PVC had substantially contributed to the formation of these chemicals. 32

The German Federal Office of the Environment has drawn attention to the dangers arising from PVC in fires, in relation to the formation of hydrogen chloride gas - which creates corrosive hydrochloric acid on contact with moisture.

"The high chlorine content of PVC products may give rise to major hydrogen chloride emissions. Hydrogen chloride...may cause burns in affected persons and considerable material damage through corrosion of buildings and installationsŠ Damage caused by hydrochloric acid may necessitate extensive repair work which would not be required after fires without PVC involvement."33

The hydrogen chloride given off during a fire also reacts with the many additives present in PVC, creating even greater volumes of toxic fumes.34 In addition, heavy metals contained in PVC stabilisers will be released and this is especially dangerous in the case of cadmium.35

One of the best documented cases of the safety threat posed by hydrogen chloride released by PVC, is the Beverley Hills Supper Club fire of 1977. During the fire, PVC wiring decomposed forming a 'wispy grey-white smoke' with no visible flames. By the time the flames became visible and the alarm was raised, it was too late. A total of 161 people died without any direct involvement with the flames, before any wood started burning and before carbon monoxide reached dangerous levels. These deaths and the many respiratory injuries were a direct result of the presence of PVC.36

Accidental fires in homes and buildings involving large amounts of PVC also appear to be an important source of dioxin. PVC is now ubiquitous in modern buildings, and high concentrations of dioxin have been found in residues around fires which have involved PVC.37 Laboratory combustion tests have shown that the dioxin content of fire residues involving various PVC materials is considerably higher than that of PVC-free materials such as wood.38 Electrical cables are usually made from PVC, and in an electrical fire, the PVC plastic sheathing is often the first material to burn. Outside of the UK, principally in Germany and Austria, there are strict standards about the level of dioxin to which the general population may be exposed; as a result the authorities are required to clean up dioxin contamination following fires.

The high cost of dioxin clean-up following PVC fires has been a major incentive for local authorities to switch to non-PVC materials in Germany and Austria. A PVC cable fire in the telephone exchange in Dusseldorf in 1988, which was easily extinguished by the fire brigade with just ten litres of water, resulted in heavy dioxin contamination of the whole building. It took three years of cleaning up to remove the damage, at a cost of nearly 12 million dollars.

This section lists materials that can be specified as alternatives to PVC. These alternative materials are available to replace PVC in all its major uses in building; including flooring, electrical and information cables, guttering, underground drainage and cladding.

In the UK one of the largest uses of PVC is in rigid pipes for above ground and underground drainage. PVC ducts are also often used to carry or protect electrical cables and gas pipes.

For underground sewage or water pipes, vitrified clay pipes are suitable and are very durable. The expected service life of a clay pipe is commonly given as 100 years; several manufacturers actually offer 100 year warranties. Clay pipes have a high resistance to chemicals in waste water. The UK clay drainage pipe company, Naylor Brothers, is promoting its products based on their environmental acceptability compared with PVC. In recent years, clay drainage pipes have been improved to the point where under normal conditions a bedding fill of granular material is not required. This saves on space, time and cost of aggregates.

Alternative materials to PVC in sewage pipes may perform better over time: the city of Nyborg in Denmark reported that the PVC main sewage pipe had become extremely brittle and required frequent replacement. In the UK, Anglian Water specifies polyethylene or ductile iron pipes in its mains renovation programme. Neither does it allow developers to use PVC pipe in new sewage schemes for engineering reasons.39

High density polyethylene (HDPE) can also be used for sewage pipes. As PVC pipes tend to come in shorter lengths, they require more joints and have more leakage potential. HDPE pipes are more flexible and shock resistant. For above ground drainage, ie soil and vent pipes and guttering, materials such as zinc, cast iron, copper, galvanized steel or aluminium can be used as an alternative. Metal guttering has a longer service life, although it may require some maintenance.

A new urban development in Leidsche Rijn, near Utrecht in the Netherlands, which will provide over 30,000 new-built houses and 700,000 m2 of office space, is minimising the use of PVC. In particular the water and sewerage system will be PVC-free. Some of the first stages of the housing project have already been built.

PVC soil and vent pipes can be substituted with cast iron with stainless steel couplings and EPDM sealing gaskets.

It is possible to substitute PVC ducting carrying electricity cables with polyethylene (PE) and steel.

The UK gas industry now only uses medium density polyethylene (MDPE) pipe because it is more flexible than PVC pipe. MDPE is also gaining market share in the water industry.40

Cabling is used either to conduct information, eg data transmission cables for computers, or to conduct electrical energy: power cables. Cables manufacturers have already developed and marketed several halogen-free alternatives to PVC cable, as a result of concern over emissions from PVC cable in the event of fire. When cable is designated halogen-free this means it cannot contain PVC or any other organochlorine based chemicals. A recent example of the move towards halogen-free cabling is the new metro system in Bilbao, Spain. Designed by Sir Norman Foster, this used PVC-free cabling made by Pirelli, for safety and environmental reasons. The new Berlin Museum of Jewish Culture, designed by Daniel Libeskind, a PVC-free building, is being wired throughout with PVC-free cable.

The main alternative power cables in the high and medium voltage range use polyethylene as an insulation and sheathing material. These types of cables are manufactured in the UK by companies such as Delta Energy Cables Ltd and are available through electrical wholesalers. Rubber sheathed cables are also available.

For low voltage uses such as domestic wiring, the alternatives are polyethylene or rubber insulated halogen-free cables. These are now available in the UK.

In Germany, Siemens has developed a new PVC-free power cable range (Simaclean) for residential, public and industrial buildings, which is being marketed as an environmentally-friendlier alternative to PVC. For data transmission cables there are polypropylene and polyethylene alternatives to PVC. A good selection is manufactured by the Swiss company Datwyler, which distributes in the UK.

The other advantage of cables made from alternative plastics such as polyethylene, is that these plastics do not require the use of plasticisers such as DEHP. It is also possible to use less environmentally damaging flame-retardant fillers such as aluminium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide.

All the alternative cable types listed above have better properties than PVC in the event of a fire, they generate less smoke, do not release hydrochloric acid or dioxins, and have fire-resistant qualities which match or outstrip PVC.

Although many cable manufacturers sell a range of halogen-free cables, they still have a small market share so you may have to ask cable dealers or wholesalers to get them in stock. The price of halogen-free cable is still higher than PVC cable but as more and more people choose PVC-free alternatives, the price difference is shrinking.

Alternatives to PVC flooring are easy to find, are competitively priced and perform as well as, if not better than, PVC.

Rubber flooring which contains chlorine-based ingredients should be avoided. Ethylene propylene diene (EPDM) type rubber is recommended by the Danish Environmental Protection Authority as an alternative to PVC.

Increasingly reclaimed wood floors are available. If using new wood, it is important to source from certified forests where clear-cutting and other environmentally damaging practices are banned.

For the production of cork flooring the bark of the Mediterranean cork oak is stripped and ground. Cork floor coverings are available with untreated or sealed surfaces. Types which are sealed with artificial resins (polyurethane) or PVC should be avoided.

When deciding which type of flooring to specify, it is important to consider the durability of the material and the possibility of future renovation.

Only cork and wooden flooring can be renovated by planing or sanding. For that reason, these floorings have a longer durability which often justifies the higher costs of fitting.

It is important to choose wood from certified forests, where clear-cutting and other environmentally damaging techniques are not practised. Reclaimed wood or local timbers like spruce, pine and larch from certified forests can be used.

An advantage of wooden window frames is their durability, providing maintenance is kept up. Wooden windows can last for over 50 years and even after that time can be renovated, whereas PVC windows have to be totally replaced after a much shorter period.

There are many companies which will restore old wooden windows as well as companies offering new wooden windows. Wooden windows can be combined with energy efficient double or triple glazing for energy saving.

Though maintenance of high performance wooden windows is minimal, some may consider them unsuitable for a small percentage of buildings. In this case aluminium and wood combination windows, should be considered in preference to PVC.

PVC is used for a huge variety of purposes such as facia boards, window sills etc. Alternative materials are wood, steel, other plastics such as polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), depending on the specific purpose. The alternative materials are both technically and financially competitive with PVC.

PVC cladding is often used by the building industry as a cheap substitute for wood on the exterior of buildings to protect the fabric beneath or for decorative effects. However its appearance will change over time. PVC cladding is susceptible to yellowing, bleaching, and 'chalking' as a result of complex chemical changes brought on by exposure to heat, UV light and moisture. The yellowing of PVC cladding can be more prevalent in wetter, Northern areas.41 PVC cladding will also become more brittle over time. Alternatives to PVC cladding include wood (local produced pine or spruce) or various composite siding products with recycled fibre content. These may require increased maintenance. Steel, concrete and stone panels can also be used.

PVC is often used in different water-proofing applications, in particular tensile structures, roof membranes, and geomembranes. There are non-PVC alternatives available for all these uses.

Tensile or stressed fabric structures have become commonly used in place of conventional roofs in recent years, particularly for buildings used for social gatherings or of a semi-permanent nature. Large amounts of PVC treated material will pose risks in the case of a fire. Alternatives include canvas and silicon-coated fabrics.

The alternatives to PVC roof membranes are made of ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM). By avoiding PVC in this application, workers also avoid exposure to fumes released during welding of PVC roof membranes. There are a wide range of products available to replace PVC geomembranes used in landscaping and civil engineering, for example in lining lakes and reservoirs; these are mostly made of rubber.

1 ENDS Report 213, Oct. 1992.

2 Colborn T., Davidson A., Green S.N., Hodge R.A., Jackson C.I. and Liroff, R.A. (1990) "Great Lakes Great Legacy ?" Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Foundation

3 Jeffers P.M. , Ward L.M., Woytowitch L.M. and Wolfe N. L. (1989) "Homogenous hydrolysis rate constants for selected chlorinated methanes, ethanes, ethenes and propanes". Environ Sci. Technol. 23 (8): 965-969.

4 ICI's report to HMIP, 24 April 1994, Report to the Chief Inspector HMIP. Authorisation AK6039 Improvement Condition Part 8, Table 8.1 Item 2, "Formation of Dioxin in oxychlorination, significance for human health and monitoring proposals". ENDS Report 251, December 1995 pgs 3-4. "ICI on the defensive over dioxins".

5 Johnston P.A., Stringer R.L and French M.C. (1991) "Pollution of UK estuaries-Historical and current problems". Science of the total environment. Vol 106. pgs 55-70 Johnston P.A., Stringer R.L., Clapton R. and Swindlehurst R.J..(1994) "Regulation of toxic chemicals in the North Sea: the need for an adequate control strategy". North Sea Monitor.Vol 12 . Issue 2 pgs 9-16.

6 Sax.N.I., Lewis R.J. Sr. 1987, Hazardous Chemicals Desk Reference. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.

7 Estimates based on waste tonnage per year quoted in ENDS Report 251 December 1995

8 Richardson, Phil - Dispatches TV programme, broadcast Channel 4 Wednesday 20 December

9 Ecotec Research and Consulting Ltd. report for the Commission of the European Communities "Shifts toward Chlorine-Free Products: Case study of the market for PVC".

10 Department of the Environment: Leah (1977), ECOTOC (1985) and Wams (1987) cited in Environmental hazard assessment: Di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate. Toxic Substances Division. Directorate for Air, Climate and Toxic Substances, (TSD/2) 1991.

11 Deisder P, Lepri L, Checchini L, "Identification and determination of organic compounds in Antarctic sediments": Ann. Chim. (Rome), 81(9-10), 595-603.1991.

12 Wagner John C, & Green Alex, E.S. (1993) "Correlation of chlorinated organic compound emissions from incineration with chlorinated organic input". Chemosphere 26 (11), 2039-2054.

13 Ozvacic, V. et al. (1990). "Biomedical Waste Incinerator Testing programme". Chemosphere, 20: 1801-1808. Danish EPA. (1993), "PVC and Alternative Materials", (English translation) Copenhagen, 1993.

14 Department of the Environment: Leah (1977), ECOTOC (1985) and Wams (1987) cited in Environmental hazard assessment: Di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate. Toxic Substances Division. Directorate for Air, Climate and Toxic Substances, (TSD/2) 1991.

15 Ibid

16 Angrick M. and Batz R., (1994) "German EPA research programme on production and processing facilities for steel and iron", presented at UTECH 94, February 1994.

17 Mably, TA., Moore, RW. Bjerke, DL & Peterson, R.E. (1991) "The male reproductive system is highly sensitive to in utero and lactational TCDD exposure". Banbury report 35. Biological Basis for risk assessment of dioxins and related compounds. Publ: Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press. ISBN 0-87969-235-9/91 Mably , T.A., Moore, RW & Peterson, R.E. (1992a) "In utero and lactational exposure of male rats to 2, 3, 7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin". 1. "Effects on androgenic status". Toxicol. Appl.Pharmacol, 114:97-107

18 ENDS Report, September 1994. page 22. Issue 236.

19 ICI's report to HMIP, 24 April 1994 op cit.

20 Ibid

21 Evers, EHG., Ree, K.C.M. & Olie. (1988) Chemosphere 17, 2271-2288

22 Travis C.C., Hattemeyer-Frey H.A., and Silbergeld E. (1989) "Dioxin, dioxin everywhere". Environ. Sci. Technol.23 (9) 1061-1063. Longanathan, B., and Kannan, K. (1994) "Global organochlorine contamination trends: an overview". AMBIO 23 (3): 187-189.

23 ICI's report to HMIP, 24 April 1994,op cit. ENDS Report 251 op cit.

24 Meek, ME Chan, P.K.L. (1994a) "Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate: Evaluation of risks to health from environmental exposure in Canada". Environ. Carcino. Ecotox.Revs.C12 (2): 179-194 Meek, ME Chan, P.K.L. (1994b) "Di-n-butyl phthalate: Evaluation of risks to health from environmental exposure in Canada". Environ. Carcino. Ecotox. Revs.C12 (2): 257-268 Meek, ME Chan, P.K.L. (1994c) "Di-n-octyl phthalate: Evaluation of risks to health from environmental exposure in Canada". Environ. Carcino. Ecotox. Revs. C12 (2): 319-326

25 Jopling ,S., Reynolds, T., White,R., Parker, M.G. & Sumpter, J.P. (1995) "A variety of environmentally persistent chemicals, including some phthalate plasticizers, are weakly oestrogenic".Environ. Health Persp. 103 (6): 582 -587

26 Norton, M.G., Franklin, A., Rowlatt, S.M., Nunny, R.S. & Rolfe, M.S. (1984). MAFF Direct. Fish. Res., Lowestoft, 76, 1.

27 Leah, R.T., Ma, Z.Y., Evans, S.J. & Johnston, M.S. (1991) "Mercury in the stomach contents of dab (Limanda limanda) in the North East Irish Sea and Mersey Estuary". Environ. Pollut. 72: 117-126.

28 Franklin, A. (1991) "Monitoring and surveillance of non-radioactive contaminants in the aquatic environment and activities regulating the disposal of wastes 1988-1989". Aquat. Environ. Monit. Rep., MAFF Direct. Fish. Res. Lowestoft (26) 87pp.

29 ENDS Report 233, June 1994.

30 Ware, G.W. (1989) Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 107, 166.

31 Johnston, P. & Troendle, S. (1993). "PVC 93: The Future; An environmental perspective". Institute of Materials, London. p.17.

32 International Environmental Reporter. May 1 1996. The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc, Washington, D.C. Press release from Dusseldorf Environmental Authority 22 May 1996. Translated by Greenpeace, Germany.

33 Umweltbundesamt UBA (Federal Office of the Environment, Germany), "Environmental Damage by PVC - an overview". Berlin, June 1992.

34 Wallace, D.N., "Dangers of Polyvinyl Chloride Wire Insulation Decomposition". Journal of Combustion Toxicology, vol.8 (1981).

35 Plehn, W., Lohrer, W., "Umweltbelastung durch PVC", Staub, Reinhaltung der Luft 47(1987)7/8.

36 Wallace, D.N., "Dangers of Polyvinyl Chloride Wire Insulation Decomposition". Journal of Combustion Toxicology, vol.8 (1981).

37 Flutchwedel.A and Pohle.H (1993) "Formation of polychlorinated dioxins and furans in thermal processes involving chlororganic products and natural materials". German Federal Environmental Protection Agency, Berlin. NaChr. Chem. Tech Lab 41. Nr 10.

38 Umweltbundesamt UBA (Federal Office of the Environment, Germany), "Environmental Damage by PVC - an overview". Berlin, June 1992. Flutchwedel.A and Pohle.H (1993) op cit.

39 Letter to Chris Rose, Greenpeace UK, 1 July 1996 from Bob Price, Director of Water Quality, Anglian Water.

40 ECOTEC Research and Consulting Limited et al. op cit.

41 Malin, N and Wilson A, "Building for a future". Winter 1994/5, Vol 4.