INTRODUCTION
This Chlorine Free Action Pack primarily addresses the commitments in
the Environmental Guidelines for the Summer Olympic Games, Sydney 2000,
to avoid the use of PVC by "minimising and ideally avoiding the use of
chlorine based products (organochlorines), such as PCBs, PVC and chlorine
bleached paper"
However, in doing so, we must use a holistic approach to ensure that
PVC is not replaced by other materials which create new environmental problems.
Therefore, where a natural material, such as timber, replaces PVC, it must
be sourced from sustainable forestry operations or be recycled timber.
Likewise, where PVC is replaced by other petrochemical-based plastics,
we must strive to use the least hazardous plastics and ultimately reduce
our dependence on these plastics altogether.
The Chlorine-Free Action Pack essentially addresses the toxicity of
materials, using chlorine as an example. It is aimed at designers and architects
who bear the greatest responsibility for the choice of materials used in
production. They require the flexibility and open-mindedness to re-design
their buildings making an environmentally intelligent choice of materials.
Eliminating chlorine-based materials will require a systems approach,
whereby materials which cannot be replaced by acceptable alternatives are
avoided by intelligent design.
The Environmental Guidelines in the Framework of
Clean Production
The Environmental Guidelines for the Summer Olympic Games, released in
September 1993, are based on the principles adopted at the United Nations
Earth Summit in June 1992.
The Guidelines came out of the Australian Government's stated commitment
"to ecologically sustainable development (ESD), a concept which aims to
halt global warming, ozone depletion and toxic chemical pollution and to
protect biodiversity."1
Greenpeace believes that Clean Production provides the integrated paradigm
within which our progress towards sustainability or ESD can begin. The
Clean Production approach fosters an integrated approach which favours
precaution and pollution prevention instead of gambling and damage limitation.
It enables several environmental problems -- climate change, ozone depletion
and toxic pollution -- to be solved simultaneously.
Clean Production, however, is more than a concept: it is both a process
and a goal. Moreover, it is a process that has already started and to which
the Environmental Guidelines -- if strictly followed -- could contribute
significant advances. By adhering to the Guidelines, Sydney and the Australian
community could demonstrate to the rest of the world that significant steps
towards the goal of Clean Production are possible now.
Australia's Commitment to Cleaner
Production
The Australian Government has acknowledged this approach in its Cleaner
Production programme started in 1993. The programme maintains an electronic
database of case studies in cleaner production. However, information placed
on the database by companies participating in the programme is unchecked
by independent experts.
Australia also has a Centre for Cleaner Production and several educational
courses in cleaner production. The Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
(RMIT) runs two diploma courses and a Masters Degree in cleaner production.
The Centre for Design at RMIT also runs the EcoReDesign programme, an initiative
funded by the Federal Environmental Protection Agency. Its aim is to improve
the environmental performance of manufactured products.
Despite these promising projects, there is no overall product-oriented
environmental policy in Australian government which could consolidate these
efforts. Legislation to ensure that industry adopt a cleaner production
approach is fragmented and weak, and participation in the cleaner production
programme is voluntary. Furthermore, there is no long term commitment on
the part of the Commonwealth Government to fund the programme.
WHAT IS CLEAN
PRODUCTION?
Clean Production is a product-oriented approach to environmental management.
It recognises that most environmental problems stem from our unsustainable
production and consumption practices. Clean Production provides a path
towards sustainable and circular (closed-loop) production-consumption systems
similar to those found in nature (See Figure 2). It provides systemic solutions
instead of relying solely on today's technology-based pseudo-solutions.
Present Industrial Production
Industrial production systems require resources: MATERIALS from which
products are made, ENERGY which is used to transport and process materials,
as well as WATER and AIR. Today's production systems are linear or cradle-to-grave,
often using hazardous substances and finite resources in vast quantities
and at fast rates.
Current production is not compatible with the earth's ecosystem. Resources
are consumed unsustainably, processed inefficiently into often superfluous,
disposable products and then dumped as waste. The use of toxic and hazardous
materials in production processes results in dangerous emissions, by-products
and ingredients in final products (See Figure 1).
Disposal of used products by landfilling or incineration simply redistributes
hazardous substances in air, soil and groundwater when raw waste or incinerator
ash is dumped. Even recycling is unacceptable when used products made of
toxic materials are reprocessed. Most of today's recycling consumes vast
amounts of energy, disperses poisons into the environment and has no impact
on on our consumption of virgin materials. Recycling in the current industrial
production-consumption cycle helps stem the waste flow. However, it is
just a band-aid on the problem -- not the cure.
"We should recycle, but it is not the first thing we should do. It is
the last. Redesign first, then reduce, reuse and finally recycle, if there
is no other alternative."2
Moving towards Clean Production
The transition to Clean Production will rely increasingly on smaller
and cleaner water, material and energy flows, and will therefore require
us to reduce our use of these resources. This can be achieved by improved
product design that increases durability and facilitates the reuse of components
and materials. In the first instance, a Clean Production approach questions
the very need for the product or looks at how else that need could be satisfied
or reduced.
The goal of Clean Production is to fulfil our need for products in a
sustainable way, i.e. using renewable, non-hazardous materials and energy
efficiently while conserving biodiversity. A better choice of materials
that favours the use of non-hazardous substances in production processes
will result in cleaner and safer products.
Clean Production systems are circular and therefore use fewer materials
and less water and energy. This cradle-to-cradle approach dictates that
after the useful life of a product is over, the product will either decompose
completely, thereby becoming food for other organisms (organic nutrients)
or become raw material for another industrial product (technical nutrients).3
By making products more durable, resources flow through this cycle at slower
rates (See Figure 2).
Clean Production implements the Precautionary Principle. It is an integrated
approach to environmental issues centred around the product. This approach
recognises that most of our environmental problems -- for example global
warming, toxic pollution, loss of biodiversity -- are caused by the way
and rate at which we produce and consume resources. It also acknowledges
the need for public participation in political and economic decision making.
The Environmental Guidelines
The role of the Environmental Guidelines for the Summer Olympic Games
is to provide immediate direction in the construction of the Olympic buildings
and the organisation of the Games. They provide building contractors with
specific directions on which materials to avoid and which to favour. They
also address issues of water, energy and biodiversity.
Clean Production provides the bigger vision of a sustainable future
based on four key principles: PRECAUTION, PREVENTION, DEMOCRATIC CONTROL
and INTEGRATION. It is these fundamental principles that should steer the
design of the Olympic buildings and influence the choice of materials used.
THE FOUR
ELEMENTS OF CLEAN PRODUCTION
1. Precaution:
The Precautionary Approach puts the burden of proof on the potential polluter
to prove that a substance or activity will do no environmental harm, rather
than on communities to prove harm. This approach rejects the sole use of
quantitative risk assessment in decision making because it recognises the
limitations of scientific knowledge in determining if the use of a chemical
or an industrial activity should proceed. This approach does not ignore
science, but rather acknowledges that since industrial production also
has social impacts, other public decision makers -- not just scientists
-- must be involved.
The Olympic commitment to avoid the use of PVC embodies the precautionary
approach. Despite the PVC restrictions in Europe, the jury on PVC in Australia
is still out. Nevertheless, Sydney has decided to play safe. Similarly,
the commitment to renewable energy implies caution. Renewable energy supplies,
such as solar and wind energy, do not release greenhouse gases which are
believed to cause climate change.
2. Prevention:
It is cheaper and more effective to prevent environmental damage than to
attempt to manage or "cure" it. Prevention requires going "upstream" in
the production process to prevent the problem instead of attempting damage
control downstream. Pollution prevention replaces pollution control. For
example, prevention requires process and product changes to avoid the generation
of waste streams currently destined for incineration, instead of developing
more sophisticated incinerator design. Similarly, energy-efficiency practices
replace the current over-emphasis on the development of new energy supplies.
The Olympic commitment to passive solar design and use of renewable
energy is prevention. It prevents the burning of fossil fuels to produce
energy, with all the associated environmental impacts. Intelligent building
design maximises the use of natural ventilation, solar heating and light,
reducing the need for energy for temperature control and lighting. The
use of insulation and energy-efficient appliances could enable the Olympics
to be not only self-sufficient in renewable energy, but also a net energy
exporter.
Waste avoidance and minimisation is prevention. However, the Environmental
Guidelines still rely too heavily on recycling. Recycling, for all its
"green" connotations, is merely a band-aid approach that can actually perpetuate
wasteful consumption patterns. As Simon Fairlie wrote in his article on
recycling, "Overconsumption cannot be remedied by recycling waste".4
The biggest test of the Environmental Guidelines will be decisions regarding
procurement and purchasing policies. What type of packaging will be acceptable
for use during the Olympics? Should disposable products be used? During
their two-week stay in Sydney, some 30,000 athletes, officials and media
from 200 countries5 and an anticipated 250,000 visitors6 are capable of
leaving behind a mountain of waste. This must not be allowed to happen.
Already, the Homebush site hosts a mountain of municipal waste rising
some 20 metres above sea level. Although it has been isolated from the
surrounding environment, it remains a monument to past and present patterns
of excessive consumption.
3. Democratic Control:
Clean Production involves all those affected by industrial activities,
including workers, consumers and communities. Access to information and
involvement in decision making ensure democratic control. As a minimum,
communities must have information on industrial emissions and access to
pollution registers such as the proposed National Pollutant Inventory (NPI),
toxic use reduction plans, as well as data on product ingredients.
Guidelines relating to the planning and construction of Olympic facilities
commit Sydney to "community participation" in the planning process. Greenpeace
supported the establishment of "Green Watch 2000", a coalition of environmental
groups assisted by the Government to oversee the implementation of the
Guidelines.
4. Integration:
Society must adopt an integrated approach to environmental resource use
and consumption. Currently, fragmented environmental management allows
pollutants to be transferred between air, water and soil. Reductions in
polluting emissions from production processes lead to the hazard being
transferred to the product. These dangers can be minimised by addressing
all material, water and energy flows, the whole life-cycle of the product,
and the economic impact of the change to Clean Production. Life Cycle Analysis
(LCA) is the tool used to assist in maintaining an integrated approach,
which will be essential to ensure that as hazardous materials, such as
PVC, are phased out, they are not replaced by materials that pose new environmental
threats.
When providing contractors with the database of Australian building
suppliers of PVC-free building materials, Greenpeace has strived to examine
the alternatives (See Module 3: Building a PVC-free Future, Appendix A).
Alternatives to PVC drainage pipes and electrical cabling include other
plastics, whose environmental impacts throughout their life-cycle must
be evaluated. However, the lack of information on the chemical ingredients
in plastic, due to claims of commercial-in-confidence, makes a full LCA
impossible. Furthermore, ignorance of the health and environmental impacts
of many chemicals undermines the results of any LCA.
By applying the principles of Clean Production to all Olympic activities,
the impact of the Sydney Games on this planet will be drastically reduced.
More importantly, these Olympics could be a vehicle of change to demonstrate
the feasibility of urban sustainability. They could show that a significant
step towards Clean Production can be made immediately. Constant referral
to these principles will ensure that progress keeps moving and stays on
course.
THE OLYMPICS
AS A PRODUCT
A Clean Production approach questions the need for the product. The
Olympic Games are themselves, in today's market-driven world, a product.
Are the Games necessary? They have a value in terms of bringing together
nations to share sport and culture. If they can also provide an international
showcase of environmentally sustainable design, technology, systems and
management, the environmental impact of the Games may start to be balanced
by some benefits.
A Clean Production strategy also examines how our need for products
can be reduced. The shared use of products and services, such as public
transport and laundromats, reduces the number of vehicles and washing machines.
Their increased durability and ability to be dismantled and repaired are
all ways of conserving resources without reducing wealth or welfare.
By locating most of the sporting events on two compact sites and ensuring
that all venues are within 30 minutes travel of the Olympic Village, the
need for mobility and thus transport is reduced. This is a systems approach
to reducing our need for products and services.
The Sydney commitment to ensuring that all Olympic sites are accessible
by public transport encourages sharing of resources. The use of passive
solar design, thermal insulation and natural ventilation reduces the need
for air-conditioning and thus energy.
The First Steps
The first steps toward Clean Production are improvements in efficiency
by reducing waste generation, as well as toxic material, water and energy
use. This can be achieved by introducing recycling systems to reuse wastewater
or heat that would otherwise be dissipated. This enables the closing of
material and water cycles which moves production and consumption toward
a circular system. It is the circular nature of Clean Production that dictates
that closed-loop systems of water and wastewater must be installed for
all Olympic facilities.
No sewage should leave the site and end up in the Pacific Ocean. Instead,
wastewater should be collected. Greywater, from showers and laundry, should
be reused for irrigation. Sewage should be separated; the liquid fraction
should undergo biological treatment in artificially constructed wetlands
and be reused for non-drinking purposes; the solid fraction should be decomposed
in digesters to generate methane gas -- some of which will be used to fuel
the Olympic flame!
The Next Step
The next step examines the product and its role in satisfying different
needs. Whereas traditionally the technical design of a product was aimed
at minimising production costs, today society must move to full cost-accounting
to fully internalise the environmental, social and monetary costs of resource
depletion and waste generation.
The Environmental Guidelines commit to the "selection of building components
for new projects being subject to life-cycle costing and consideration
of environmental implications during manufacture, use and disposal". For
this reason, the use of toxic materials and processes is to be avoided
and the use of "non-toxic paints, glues, varnishes, polishes, solvents
and cleaning products" is to be maximised. Toxic cleaning products contaminate
wastewater and hamper its recycling. Likewise, chlorine-based products,
such as PVC plastic and chlorine-bleached paper are to be avoided where
possible. Cleaner paper reduces the environmental impact of wastepaper
recycling.
The need for pesticides in landscape maintenance can be eliminated by
intelligent landscape design by planting indigenous species on the Homebush
site. Native plants require less irrigation. By avoiding pesticides, rainwater
can be reused with minimal treatment. Wastewater treatment will use biological
processes including wetlands. This systems approach improves environmental
quality; it reduces the need for water, improves its ability to be reused
and, by using native plants which attract native animals and increases
biodiversity.
The commitment to using renewable sources of energy, such as solar power
coupled with energy conservation measures, like passive solar design and
energy-efficient lighting, will significantly reduce the energy demands
of the Olympic site. This is a major step towards Clean Production. Energy
efficiency coupled with solar technologies could enable the Olympic community
to be not only self-sufficient in energy, but a net exporter of energy.
One Olympic proposal is looking to combine the use of solar thermal
technology with methane generated by sewage. Fossil-free methane is to
be used to boost the temperature of water heated by solar energy to generate
steam. The steam can be put through turbines to generate electricity. This
is another systems approach which ensures that nothing is wasted.
The strategies described above can only be optimised if environmental
considerations are incorporated in the design of the Olympic facilities.
They can be roughly classified as follows:
DESIGN FOR REDUCED CONSUMPTION
OF RESOURCES -- The design aims at reducing the quantity
of materials consumed and favours recyclable or renewable materials;
DESIGN FOR PROLONGING THE USEFUL
LIFE OF THE PRODUCT -- Design choices consider the
durability of materials, and the use of easily replaced components, to
discourage rapid replacement;
DESIGN FOR RECYCLING
-- The design favours the use of materials which can be recovered
-- by recycling, regeneration or re-utilisation -- and avoids toxic materials;
DESIGN FOR DIS-ASSEMBLY
-- The design facilitates the separation of components and materials
from used products to encourage recycling and re-utilisation.
Climbing the Last Steps
Moving on up the steps, society's needs for products are questioned
using an integrated systems approach. By now, products are clean, durable
and capable of being reused, repaired or dismantled for the components.
Cleaner products mean fewer occupational and environmental health hazards
during dismantling and recycling. Durability of products reduces the use
of materials which, in turn, reduces energy needs: materials tend to drive
energy consumption. Repair, dismantling and recycling create new jobs,
compensating for jobs lost in the unsustainable industries.
Society's needs for products have been reduced by industry providing
services instead of just products. Using services allows the use of products
to be shared. For example, households use laundry services instead of individual
washing machines.
Instead of using private cars, people travel by public transport, bicycle
or on foot. They also have less need to travel because towns have been
re-designed to be human-friendly rather than car-friendly, with all conveniences
close by. Energy utilities are selling heat and light instead of electricity;
their profit lies in satisfying these needs at lowest cost to themselves.
It is in their interest to ensure that buildings are energy-efficient,
so that they can sell as little electricity as possible.
The biggest hurdle that the Olympics project will have to overcome to
make a significant step toward Clean Production is the short-sighted, entrenched
mentalities and vested interest groups. To remain on track, the Olympics
project must imagine the future so that its design reflects those aspirations.
Unfortunately, the Olympics are being designed and staged within the
constraints of today's unsustainable system. They are being designed within
a distorted market that does not factor the cost of environmental damage
into the price of its materials. The present economic system is distorted
because it "overconsumes" nature and "undervalues" people, causing both
environmental destruction and unemployment respectively.
Machine- and chemical-intensive forestry and agriculture are favoured
over more labour-intensive, chemical-free practices. Chlorine-free paper
is more expensive than chlorine-bleached paper. The toxicity of a material
is not reflected in its price. Timber sourced from unsustainably managed
forests is cheaper than that from Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certified
forest operations.7
Avoiding Genetically Engineered
Products
It is essential that as we move towards Clean Production, today's toxic
technologies using synthetic chemicals are not replaced with modern biotechnologies
that use genetic engineering and biological chemicals.
Already, genetic engineers are proposing that chlorine bleaching of
paper be replaced by the use of enzymes, often produced by genetically
modified organisms (GMOs). Alarmingly, some scientists are even proposing
that the trees themselves be genetically engineered to reduce their lignin
(cellulose) content and thus obviate the need for bleaching.
The drive towards improving an organism's fitness for survival has given
rise to genetically engineered "super-crops". Their introduction into a
particular area could result in the displacement of natural wild species.
Since they are designed to protect themselves against their main enemies,
such as insects and disease, it is likely that they will proliferate at
the expense of other plants. Over time, they could cause the decline of
natural flora and even replace them completely. With the disappearance
of the natural flora the wildlife that depend on them could also be threatened.
Although the Environmental Guidelines do not specifically address genetic
engineering, they do aim to protect natural habitats and thus biodiversity.
Clearly, Sydney's commitment to the "preservation and protection of the
integrity of natural ecosystems" precludes the use of products of genetic
engineering. Therefore, genetically engineered fibres, such as cotton,
should not be used in Olympic merchandise and genetically engineered food
should not be sold during the Olympics. Ideally, to maintain the spirit
of the Guidelines and protect the health of athletes, only organically
grown food should be available at Olympic venues.
STRIVING
FOR CLEAN PRODUCTION
Clean Production is both a process and a goal. If the Environmental
Guidelines are to be a tool for achieving this goal, they must be constantly
tightened to achieve our aim of reducing the consumption of resources.
The Sydney Olympics should have a closed-loop water and wastewater system,
but it will still use water. Perhaps by the time of the 2004 Olympics,
the true value of water will be reflected in its conservation. By that
time, society may decide that water is too precious to use to transport
human excrement and accept waterless biological toilets.
Likewise, by 2004, our reliance on non-renewable and environmentally
damaging petrochemical plastics may be drastically reduced. They may be
replaced by bio-plastics. Organically grown food and fibres may become
the norm rather than the exception. The use of solar and other renewable
sources of energy will be assumed and alternatives to our present use of
toxic materials will be readily available.
Australia has an opportunity to lead the world towards a truly ecologically
sustainable society. The crucial choices are being made now, and we are
all part of the process. It will only work if we approach this opportunity
as a team effort, and go for green in 2000.
