| CHLORINE-FREE ACTION PACK MODULE 2:
The Global Chlorine Crisis Why chlorine chemistry must be phased out Contents |
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Chlorine is the main link in many of the world's most notorious environmental poisons: dioxin, DDT, Agent Orange, PCBs and the ozone destroyers, CFCs and HCFCs. Government lists of priority pollutants that threaten human health and the environment are dominated by chlorinated compounds, but there are thousands of other chlorinated compounds just as capable of causing harm that are not regulated or even monitored.
The uncontrolled release of chlorinated compounds into the environment has created a global toxic soup. Regulators and industry continue to discharge toxic waste into the environment, despite mounting evidence of the harmful effects of this global experiment of which we are all part.
Assessing chemicals on a substance-by-substance basis cannot keep up with the pace of new chemicals being created, particularly when attempting to regulate complex mixtures of byproducts that are formed in chlorine-based processes. Whole industrial groups of chemicals need to be phased out, beginning with the most toxic and persistent. The first and most important step is to phase out, replace or eliminate the production and use of chlorine, beginning with the largest market internationally for chlorine: the manufacture, use and disposal of PVC plastic.
If the sea is half chlorine, why is it so poisonous?
Chlorine chemistry begins with ordinary salt, sodium chloride. Salt is a natural compound which is common throughout the environment and our own bodies. Chlorine gas is formed by passing huge amounts of electricity through salt water and splitting the salt molecule. This liberates chlorine gas, an extremely reactive and poisonous substance that rarely occurs in nature. Chlorine gas bonds rapidly to organic matter (substances containing carbon) to form organochlorines. Most chlorine is combined with petrochemicals to produce organochlorine products, including plastics (particularly PVC or vinyl), pesticides, solvents and other chemicals. Many more are produced by accident, the unintentional byproducts of manufacturing processes and other uses of chlorine, such as bleaching paper pulp, disinfection of water, manufacture of other organochlorines, and from the intentional or accidental combustion of chlorinated products. Often, these unintentional byproducts are even more toxic than the original or intended product.
Organochlorines are useful to industry because they tend to be very stable: they resist natural breakdown processes. This also means that they persist in the environment for decades or even centuries. Because of their long life, even small discharges of these chemicals build up in the environment over time. As industry produces more and more chlorine, the total burden of organochlorines continues to grow. From the North Pole to the Antarctic, organochlorines can be found in the air, water and food chain.
Table 1.0 World Uses of Chlorine
| CHLORINE GAS | PLASTICS | ORGANIC CHEMICALS | INORGANIC CHEMICALS |
| 15% | 50% | 14% | 21% |
| pulp & paper 10% | PVC 34% | solvents 9% | hypochlorites 4% |
| waste water 4% | polyurethane 11% | refrigerants 2% | hydrochloric acid 6% |
| drinking water 1% | epoxy resins 2% | pesticides 2% | Titanium dioxides 2% |
| neoprene 1% | pharmaceuticals 0.5% | other inorganics 3% | |
| other plastics 2% | detergents 0.5% | other chemicals 6% |
Chlorine uses and alternatives: alternatives are available now for all major uses of chlorine.
Chlorine use # 1: PVC plastic, or vinyl, is the largest single use of chlorine. It is widely used for a variety of products, such as packaging, children's toys, furniture, pipes, flooring and window frames. It is also the most environmentally damaging of all plastics, due to the release of organochlorines and other chemicals, such as the hormone-disrupting phthalates, throughout its life-cycle. PVC production requires vast quantities of toxic substances, and toxic byproducts are released into the environment in the process. When PVC products are burned by intentional waste incineration or in accidental fires, toxic emissions such as hydrochloric acid and dioxins can cause immediate and long-term health and environmental effects.
Alternatives: PVC can be phased out relatively easily. Products currently made from PVC can be replaced by wood, metal, glass and, if necessary, other transition material plastics (See Module 3, appendix A). Unnecessary packaging can be eliminated entirely. There are many examples of European communities, hospitals, retailers and manufacturers of flooring, furniture and automobiles that have virtually eliminated PVC from their construction projects and process lines. In Australia, the Environmental Guidelines for the Summer Olympic Games have made a commitment to minimize or avoid the use of PVC. Module 3 of this Action Pack provides information for the construction industry on how to avoid the use of PVC, and where to look for alternatives products (See Module 4: Database of Australian Suppliers of PVC-Free Building Materials).
Chlorine use # 2: Pulp and paper companies use chlorine and other chlorine-based bleaching products in the production of white paper. This process produces a cocktail of thousands of organochlorines (over 300 have been identified) including dioxins, furans and other highly toxic, persistent substances in the waste and product stream. The byproducts are released into waterways and the atmosphere, and are found in the final paper products and in the sludges from paper mills. There are three pulp mills in Australia which use chlorine in their bleaching process: Shoalhaven in New South Wales, Maryvale in Victoria and Burnie in Tasmania. Organochlorines have been detected in pulp mill effluent from both the Burnie and the Maryvale mills. All three mills are owned by Australian Paper, a subsidiary of Amcor Ltd.
Alternatives: The use of chlorine can be avoided by using oxygen-based bleaches, such as hydrogen peroxide, ozone and oxygen itself. It is possible to produce high-quality, totally chlorine-free pulp and paper, but there is reluctance on the part of the industry to make the switch. (Module 7: Chlorine-Free Paper - in development as at September 1996) Introduction of more efficient systems reduces the costs of chemical procurement and energy requirements, and saves on water needs and waste disposal. This Action Pack is printed on TCF (totally chlorine-free) paper which can easily meet the quality and brightness requirements for most paper products.
Chlorine use # 3: Dry cleaning uses chlorinated chemicals such as perchloroethylene, or "perc" , which is mostly released directly into the atmosphere, causing contamination of nearby residences, food products and groundwater. In 1993-94, Australia imported 1.8 million kg of perc. Approximately half of the 1100 dry cleaning operations in Australia use a closed-loop system, which prevents much of the solvent escaping to the atmosphere. However, at least 50% of dry cleaning solvents are still released into the environment. These closed systems use on average 300 kg per annum of chemicals, which is slowly depleted via atmospheric escapes and residues on clothing. Older systems, where the solvent-saturated clothes are transferred manually from the washer to the dryer, use on average 1000 kg of chemical each year. For example, the Victorian Environment Protection Authority, estimated that in just one suburb, Dandenong in Melbourne's outer east, 2000 kg of perc were released into the air in 1994.
Alternatives: There are now commercially viable and technologically sophisticated water-based methods which can provide a chlorine-free cleaning service to clean most fabrics and textiles, including wools and silks. A very successful demonstration project has been operating on a commercial basis in Chicago, Illinois, for over one year. Despite initial cynicism within the industry, the method is gaining acceptance. According to the US Environmental Protection Authority, cleaners that switch to water-based professional cleaning technologies benefit from an increase in profits, a 78% higher return on investment, and create 21% more jobs. Chlorine-free, or so-called "wet cleaning" machines are available in Australia, and there are currently some 30-40 dry cleaners who are also offering a "wet" service. As yet, however, there is no dedicated chlorine-free service.
Chlorine use # 4: Chlorinated industrial solvents are used for cleaning and coating processes in the manufacturing industry. Chlorinated solvents, most of which can cause cancer, neurological damage and reproductive toxicity, are recognised as severe workplace hazards and widespread pollutants of air and groundwater. Dow Chemical Australia is the only manufacturer of chlorinated solvents in Australia. Thousands of tonnes of solvents are also imported each year. A 1996 report for the Australian National Institute of Occupational Health and Safety estimated that just under 2,300 deaths were related to occupational exposure to hazardous substances each year - more people than are killed in car accidents. Many of the substances linked to occupational exposure problems are chlorinated chemicals.
Alternatives: Water-based or mechanical methods can replace chlorinated solvents. Chlorine-free methods are being used by major manufacturers of automobiles, paints, electronics and other equipment. Switching to cleaner and more efficient processes provides operational and financial benefits, with reduced costs for chemical procurement, waste disposal and environmental clean-up costs. In Landskrona, Sweden, a pilot clean production programme assisted a light fittings company to phase out the use of chlorinated solvents.
Chlorine use # 5: Chlorinated pesticides, in their production, formulation, use and disposal, are significant sources of pollution and chlorine-contaminated wastes. Only a small number of chemical companies manufacture pesticides in Australia, with the bulk being imported. Since the 1950s the amount of pesticides used in Australia has grown steadily. There are over 30 million hectares of agricultural land in Australia where pesticides are likely to be used, and many more are used in urban areas for pest control at work and in the home. Many of the worst chlorinated pesticides such as DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin, 2,4,5-T, Heptachlor and Chlordane have been banned and phased out in Australia. There are, however, at least 19 chlorinated pesticides still commonly used in Australia which have been banned or restricted in other countries because of health and environmental concerns.
Alternatives: The US National Academy of Natural Sciences has found that organic farming is extremely effective, enhancing yields and profits, and eliminating the need for synthetic chemical-based pest control methods. These methods rely on improved crop choice, mixing and rotation, mechanical tilling methods, and the use of natural predators and biological pest deterrents. Australia has been phasing out the use of a group of chlorinated pesticides, the cyclodienes (e.g. heptachlor and chlordane) used for termite control in building applications. While the cyclodienes have largely been replaced by other chemicals, it is possible to have long-term termite protection by using physical barrier methods when building a new home. Retrofitting for older dwellings is not always possible, but it is possible to use other methods, such as frequent inspections and diversion techniques, to prevent termite invasion and damage.
Chlorine use # 6: Disinfection of drinking water and sewage uses small amounts of chlorine which have major health and environmental impacts. Organic matter in the water combines with the chlorine to form many hundreds of organochlorine byproducts. Among the best understood are the trihalomethanes, which includes chloroform. The trihalomethanes are known carcinogens, and chlorination of drinking water is increasingly being linked to a range of human cancers and other serious health problems such as increased susceptibility to cardiovascular disease. In Australia, domestic and commercial swimming pools and spas are extremely common, many of which use chlorine as the disinfectant. The Hawkesbury-Nepean River, Sydney's largest river system, has been severely affected by the chlorination of effluent water. Sydney Water will be forced to spend up to $25 million to install new disinfection and purification procedures in order to protect aquatic life. By relying on chlorine in this way, one serious public health problem, infectious disease, has been traded for the spectre of long-term and possibly intergenerational transfer of chemically induced damage to health.
Alternatives: Ultraviolet (UV) light, ozone treatment and improved filtration can easily eliminate the need for chlorine in water treatment systems. In keeping with the Environmental Guidelines, the Sydney International Aquatic Centre is attempting to phase out chlorine by replacing its disinfection unit with an ozone treatment system. In Vienna, Austria, there is already a fully operational public swimming pool which is totally chlorine-free and relies completely on ozone to disinfect the pool water. Changes to the way we use water will facilitate the development of alternative treatment methods. By adopting a systems approach, it is possible to combine water use reduction and reuse with nutrient and pathogen removal.
Other uses of chlorine: In complex chemical manufacturing processes, alternatives to chlorine are available. In fact, major chemical companies such as ARCO, Dupont, and Monsanto have developed chlorine-free methods of manufacturing chemicals that once relied on chlorine. Even in the pharmaceutical industry, where less than one percent of chlorine is used, some manufacturers have replaced chlorinated solvents and intermediates with safer alternatives.
ICI Australia manufactures chlorinated paraffins, used as cutting oils and plasticisers, at its Yarraville site in Melbourne's west. Chlorinated paraffins have been identified as persistent, toxic and bioaccumulative, and since recent advances in analytical techniques, are now considered to be environmentally ubiquitous. Hoechst AG, the second biggest producer of chlorinated paraffins in the world, released plans in 1995 to cease production of chlorinated paraffins by the end of 1998. ICI Chemicals & Polymers announced that it would increase production to take up the shortfall left by Hoechst.
Health impacts of chlorine chemistry: how chlorine is stealing our future
Evidence has been emerging of the impacts of chlorine chemistry on our health and on the environment. While many substances have been investigated for their ability to cause cancer and other acute and chronic conditions, recent studies have indicated a far more subtle and extremely worrying suite of effects on health. Increasingly, many chlorinated compounds are being linked to hormone disruption in both adults and in the developing foetus. Hormones are the body's chemical messengers, and are responsible for switching on and off essential bodily functions and reactions. For example, the reproductive system in women operates on a monthly cycle that is regulated by hormones. Many chlorinated compounds are known to be hormone disrupters, in that they can mimic or block the action of the body's own hormones.
Contamination of the food chain with these chemicals has led to human and wildlife populations with body burdens of toxic chemicals that they are unable to break down and eliminate. These chemicals are increasingly being linked to trends such as reduced sperm counts in men. Perhaps the most worrying effect of all, however, is the potential for these chemicals to affect development of the foetus. Laboratory studies have shown that exposure to extremely low concentrations of hormone-disrupting chemicals during a very short critical time period can have permanent detrimental effects on the foetus, and can affect both physical and intellectual development.
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) plastic is a source of two potent hormone-disrupting substances: dioxins and phthalates. Dioxins are a class of unintentional industrial byproducts created during the PVC manufacturing process, and during the combustion of PVC in waste incinerators and accidental fires. One of the dioxins, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, is the most toxic substance yet identified. Phthalates are a class of non-chlorinated compounds that are almost exclusively used as plasticisers added to PVC to make it soft and flexible for applications such as cable sheathing and children's toys.
There is now enough evidence to support calls by Greenpeace for an end to chlorine chemistry. Significant advances have been made internationally to begin the phase-out of chlorinated chemicals, most recently the Washington Declaration of November 1995, which called for the urgent development of a legally binding instrument to phase out persistent organic pollutants (POPs). There is currently an action list of twelve POPs, all of which are chlorinated, which includes pesticides such as DDT, industrial chemicals such as PCBs (polychlorinated biphenols) and byproducts such as dioxins.
This Action Pack is designed to provide a starting point for the introduction of alternatives to chlorine chemistry, and will be updated as new information comes to light. It is intended to be dynamic, and to stimulate discussion and innovation. The ultimate goal is an end to toxic pollution of our food, water and environment, and to assist in building a clean future for our children and all future generations.
Greenpeace makes the following suggestions for further reading in the field of toxic pollution and hormone disruption. The following documents are available from the Greenpeace National Office at 41 Holt Street, Surry Hills, NSW 2010, phone 02 9211 4066.