1.0. BUILDING
A PVC-FREE FUTURE
The centrepiece of the 2000 Olympics, the Sydney Olympic Stadium, is
being designed to minimise the use of PVC plastic. Germany's capital city,
Bonn, has recently agreed to far-reaching restrictions on the use of PVC
plastic in public buildings. Many local councils all over Europe have already
restricted the use of PVC in building projects. In Sweden, the Government
has agreed to phase out the use of PVC. Why is PVC being replaced in buildings
from Sydney to Gothenburg?
This module seeks to answer this question by explaining the environmental
concerns over PVC plastic. It also shows how this material can be easily
replaced in new building design or refurbishment of offices, restaurants,
hospitals and housing.
The decision by the Olympic Coordinating Authority (OCA) to avoid the
use of PVC in the Olympic development is an Australian first. The Australian
Stadium 2000 Consortium which won the competition to design, construct
and build Sydney's Olympic 110,000-seat stadium are committed to using
alternatives to PVC in plumbing, drainage and flooring materials for the
project. The building industry is the biggest user of PVC in Australia.
Apart from the Olympics, Australian awareness of the hazards of PVC
remains low. Greenpeace will use this Action Pack and the Olympic development
to promote more widespread opposition to PVC.
This module examines the environmental and human health hazards of PVC
throughout its life-cycle -- from production through use to disposal --
caused by the creation and release of large amounts of toxic chemicals.
Once released into the environment, these chemicals add to the load of
persistent toxic chemicals which are building up in the air, soil and water,
the food chain and in our bodies.
At the same time, scientific evidence is emerging to suggest that the
exposure of wildlife to chemicals in the environment has resulted in widespread
problems including immune system damage and cancer. New evidence suggests
that some of these chemicals can disrupt the hormonal system of animals
in the wild, causing infertility, reproductive difficulties and developmental
problems for their offspring.
There is increasing concern that the trends which are being observed
in human populations -- decreased sperm counts, increased incidence of
testicular cancers, deformities of the reproductive organs and rapidly
increasing rates of breast cancer -- may also be linked to our exposure
to hormone-disrupting chemicals in the environment.
The high chlorine content and the many chemical additives in PVC make
it not only toxic and carcinogenic, but also an important source of two
chemicals known to be hormone disrupters: dioxin and phthalates. Dioxin
is also one of the most toxic chemicals identified and is inextricably
linked to the PVC production process.
Greenpeace believes that the best way to reduce the widespread contamination
of the environment and our bodies is to replace PVC with other materials
and end its production. A PVC phase-out would also send a strong signal
to the sector of highly toxic industries associated with its production
and use.
An integrated approach, addressing all material, water and energy flows
and the whole life-cycle of PVC alternatives must be applied. An integrated
approach will be essential to ensure that as PVC is phased out, it is not
replaced by materials that pose new environmental threats (See Module 1:
The Environmental Guidelines in the Framework of Clean Production).
There are alternatives to all the major uses of PVC in buildings whether
it be in flooring, drainage or cables. These alternatives are in use now
and have other benefits, including durability. The database of Australian
suppliers of PVC-free products lists alternative materials to PVC used
in the building industry (See Module 4: Database of Australian Suppliers
of PVC-Free Building Materials).
The model of a PVC-free development in Sydney will help convince decision
makers such as State and local governments and "green" business of the
feasibility of a PVC phase-out.
By increasing public awareness and knowledge about the hazards of PVC
and, at the same time, providing a path to its elimination, this Action
Pack serves to empower communities to demand a phase-out of this environmental
poison.
2.0. BUILDING
WITH ALTERNATIVES TO PVC
"It's no longer a question if PVC should be phased out, but how
it shall be phased out."
Anna Lindh, Swedish Minister for Environment, November 1995
The decision to move away from PVC has already been taken by many local
authorities, institutions and architects outside Australia. Most significantly,
the Swedish Parliament made a commitment in November 1995 to a total phase-out
of soft PVC and rigid PVC with harmful additives. The Danish Government
is also currently considering proposals to phase out PVC by the year 2000.
The Austrian city of Linz has recently achieved an 85% PVC phase-out
in public buildings. Six of the nine regional governments in Austria have
now placed restrictions on the use of PVC.
Both the old and the new capital cities of Germany, Bonn and Berlin,
have committed themselves to restrictions on the use of PVC in public buildings.
In February 1996, Bonn City Council agreed that PVC should be largely avoided
in public buildings: schools, kindergartens, retirement homes and subway
stations. Berlin City Council has aimed to restrict the use of PVC in construction
materials since 1989. From 1 January 1997, this restriction will be extended
to cables containing PVC.
In Germany, over 195 local authorities and six Federal States have agreed
to restrictions on PVC use.
The Channel Tunnel building project, the road/rail link between England
and France, used PVC-free cabling in the tunnel construction. London Underground
has now banned halogenated cables of all types, including PVC, from its
underground stations as a result of concerns over fire hazards following
the Kings Cross fire in the London underground station. In addition, the
Vienna Underground in Austria no longer uses PVC cables.
New building projects in Germany where large amounts of cabling are
used are often fitted with PVC-free wiring, for example North German Television's
studio in Hamburg.
In 1991, the Swedish furniture distributor IKEA announced it intended
to phase out PVC in all products.1 The phase out should be completed by
1996.
In January 1996, the Olympic Co-ordinating Authority and the building
consortium, Australian Stadium 2000 Consortium, agreed to avoid the use
of PVC in the construction of the stadium.
Most recently, in April 1996, Toronto City Council in Canada decided
to restrict the use of PVC. The incineration of PVC is to be banned and
the use of PVC piping in contaminated soil will be restricted due to the
possibility of pollutants, such as pesticides, permeating PVC piping and
contaminating drinking water.2
3.0. POLLUTION
FROM PVC PRODUCTION AND DISPOSAL
At first glance, PVC, also known as vinyl, may seem harmless enough.
PVC plastic products are widely used in buildings: in flooring, panelling,
cladding, underground and overground drainage pipes, and in cabling and
wiring.
Although it is not immediately obvious, a PVC pipe or floor tile is
the product of a highly polluting sector of the chemical industry.
From the processing of its raw materials through to its disposal, PVC
creates environmental and human health problems. The origins of these problems
lie in the properties of the toxic chemicals that are used to make PVC
plastic. The main group of chemicals are called organochlorines, formed
when highly reactive chlorine atoms bond to carbon. They tend to be soluble
in fat -- not water -- which means that once in the environment, they build
up in organisms which are part of the food chain. The inability of biological
organisms to break down organochlorines makes them persistent in the environment.
Several other types of chlorinated chemicals, other than those used
to make PVC, have been banned, phased out or restricted, based on evidence
of their harmful environmental and human health effects. These include
chemicals such as PCBs, CFCs and the pesticide DDT. Although chemicals
such as PCBs have been phased out of production, their potential for environmental
harm continues as many of them persist in the environment for decades and
in some cases for hundreds of years.
3.1. Making PVC from Chlorine
PVC is usually made by chlorinating ethylene -- a product of the petrochemical
industry -- to make ethylene dichloride (EDC). Not only is the chlorine
gas itself highly toxic, but the process of making this gas in Australia
still involves a mercury-based technology which releases mercury to the
environment.
3.2. Dumping of Wastes from PVC Production
Wastes from all three PVC plants in Australia are causing serious coastal
and groundwater contamination.
The ICI Botany Plant, which still makes PVC from VCM manufactured on-site,
is contributing to high levels of organochlorines, including hexachlorobenzene,
and mercury found in Botany Bay. The Botany chlor-alkali plant still uses
mercury cells to produce chlorine.
A 1990 study found levels of mercury in shellfish that exceeded National
Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) recommended guidelines for
human consumption. The same study also revealed that contamination of the
marine environment was due to the discharge of polluted groundwater.3
3.3. Accidents and Spills
At the Altona Auseon plant, data from the Victorian EPA shows that accidental
releases between 1977 and 1989 resulted in the release of almost 800 tonnes
of VCM and 20 tonnes of PVC. More recently, in January 1994, 1000 litres
of Auseon's VCM feedstock leaked during ship-to-shore transfer at the Geelong
sea terminal.
ICI and Auseon have reported to Greenpeace that, between them, they
annually release 1.8 tonnes of VCM to the air every year.4
3.4. Environmental Problems of Additives to PVC
The manufacture of raw PVC is itself a highly polluting process. More
environmental problems are created by the toxic chemicals that are added
to PVC to give it different qualities such as flexibility, fire-resistance,
etc.
PVC cannot be used without a range of additives. In many cases, the
final PVC product will contain relatively little raw PVC. Additive chemicals
acting as stabilisers, plasticisers, pigments, optical brighteners, flame
retardants, biocides, foaming agents and lubricants can make up over 50%
of the final product.
PVC, on its own, is unstable and must always be used with additives
called stabilisers based on heavy metals: lead, cadmium, tin, barium and
zinc. Stabilisers prevent the decomposition of PVC during processing and
make PVC resistant to light and weathering. The main stabilisers or stabiliser
systems used for PVC are lead compounds, organotin compounds, barium/zinc
and cadmium/zinc systems.
Pigments, also made of heavy metals, are used to add colour to the PVC
and halogenated flame retardants make it fire-resistant. PVC is inherently
fire-resistant as a result of its high chlorine content. However, softening
agents and other additives may be highly flammable requiring the addition
of fire retardants. The use of fire retardants, in turn, leads to more
smoke formation requiring yet another group of additives -- smoke diminishers.
The need for biocides -- another PVC additive -- has been brought about
by the use of additives, which attract microbes and bacteria. This "biological
deterioration" is particularly pervasive in cable shafts, under floor coverings
and under badly applied wall coatings. The addition of biocides in PVC
presents yet another toxic waste problem when the product reaches the end
of its useful life and is disposed of.
In its normal state, PVC is hard and brittle so plasticisers are used
to make it soft and flexible. One of these chemicals is the phthalate,
DEHP.
DEHP (di-ethyl-hexyl-phthalate) can enter the environment during its
production process. It can also leach from PVC products during their use,
and after disposal DEHP may continue to leach from discarded PVC products
in landfills.5 DEHP is now widely dispersed in the environment and can
be found even in supposedly pristine areas, such as Antarctica.6
The ICI Rhodes plant adjacent to the Olympic site at Homebush manufactures
two types of phthalates: phthalate anhydride and phthalate esters, the
latter used as PVC plasticisers. Samples of water and sediment taken from
around the stormwater drains of the ICI Rhodes plant by Greenpeace in April
1996 revealed alarming levels of DEHP and di-n-butyl phthalate. One water
sample revealed concentrations of DEHP of 229 micrograms/litre (µg
l-1) -- 380 times the Australian Guideline for fresh water of 0.6 µg
l-1. Sediment samples had even higher concentrations of these two phthalates.
The highest concentration that Greenpeace sampling revealed was 334 milligrams
per kilogram (mg kg-1).7
Following heavy rainfall, Greenpeace returned to ICI Rhodes to sample
effluent discharging from stormwater pipes which drain the site. One sample
revealed a concentration of DEHP of 4,410 µg l-1 -- 7,350 times the
Australian Guideline.8 A third set of samples, taken by the New South Wales
EPA and the Office of Maritime Safety and Port Strategies along with Greenpeace,
confirmed these results.
It would be an irony for the first PVC-free Olympics to have a PVC additive
plant in its shadow. ICI has promised to vacate the site before the Olympics.
Strict liability must be imposed on ICI to discourage the corporation from
moving its production elsewhere, only to contaminate another site.
3.5. Emissions from PVC Products During Use
In the construction sector, flexible PVC is widely used in flooring
and wallpaper, upholstery, electrical wire and cable insulation. All these
products contain large amounts of additives, especially plasticisers. Plasticisers,
such as DEHP, are not an integral component of PVC and can therefore escape
into the air. The effects are well documented.
PVC flooring releases or "offgasses" particularly high levels of plasticisers
and has been linked to to "sick building syndrome", commonly reported in
office blocks. In Sweden, 24 cases of sick building syndrome were studied.
In 8 of them, PVC floorings were involved and a range of PVC additives
were identified.9 A Norwegian report has calculated emissions of plasticisers
from various PVC building products.10
In Kansas in the United States, the State Department of Health and Environment
found drinking water contaminated by VCM which had leached from PVC water
pipes. The PVC pipes were installed in the late 1960s and early 1970s to
carry drinking water. One sample revealed levels of up to 330 ppm of VCM.11
The Australian CSIRO has calculated that PVC flooring releases 10,000-43,000
micrograms of volatile organic compounds per square metre per hour.12
3.6. Pollution Problems from Disposing of PVC
Products
PVC not only creates environmental problems during its production and
use, but also during its disposal. A large amount of PVC packaging and
discarded PVC products, such as old PVC cables or flooring, end up in municipal
and hospital waste incinerators.
PVC is usually the main source of chlorine in the municipal waste stream
and is, therefore, the primary contributor to dioxin formation in incinerators.13
Several reports have found a direct relationship between the amount of
PVC in waste fed into an incinerator and the amount of dioxin emitted.14
Reducing PVC feed has been found to result in significant drops in dioxin
emissions.15
During disposal, the vast number of additives in PVC also become dispersed
into the environment. Barium/zinc and cadmium/zinc (Cd/Zn) stabilisers
are mainly used in flexible PVC building products and Cd/Zn and lead for
rigid PVC products.16 Heavy metals, especially cadmium, can be released
from PVC during incineration.
If they are successfully trapped by incineration plant filters, the
filter residues must be disposed of as hazardous waste -- a costly process.
In Germany, almost 50% of cadmium use is in the plastics sector.17 In 1987,
Denmark banned the use of cadmium in PVC. However, lead -- another toxic
heavy metal -- is often substituted for cadmium, which does nothing to
alleviate the problem of heavy metal emissions from incinerators, nor the
potential problem of landfilling.
Incineration also produces toxic ash which must be disposed of to landfill.
Where PVC is burnt in incinerators, the dioxin content of the ash will
be increased.18 Burying the ash in landfills does not solve the pollution
problem as dioxin and other byproducts, such as heavy metals in the ash,
can be released either by the activities of micro-organisms or by the direct
action of corrosive liquids in the landfill.19
PVC in landfills
In Australia, many used PVC products in municipal, hospital and industrial
wastes are disposed of in landfills. PVC's durability and non-biodegradability
is claimed by industry to ensure its stability in landfills. For this reason,
landfill sites are often sealed within PVC membranes, in the belief that
this prevents the leaking of hazardous substances from the waste.
There is scarce research information available on the processes occurring
in landfills. However, it is known that when PVC is landfilled, the various
additives, such as DEHP and heavy metals, are liable to leach.20 These
chemicals can migrate through soil to contaminate groundwater.21
PVC Recycling
Recycling of PVC plastic is not the answer to the environmental problems
that PVC creates during its life-cycle. Although it is theoretically possible,
the potential for post-consumer recycling of PVC is extremely limited.
This is because the wide range of chemical additives added to PVC make
it difficult to create a consistent end product from the PVC plastics that
have been collected. The sorting of PVC plastic for recycling is also complicated
and expensive. New PVC also has to be added to most recycled PVC products.
Some industry sources are promoting the idea of incinerating PVC to
produce hydrochloric acid and salt. However, the viability of this technique
breaks down due to contamination of the salt with chemical additives.
In the recycling of post-consumer plastics, PVC can obstruct or damage
the recycling potential of other plastics. Traces of PVC adhering to steel
and copper can also create pollution problems during the recycling of these
metals.22
4.0. ENVIRONMENTAL
AND HUMAN HEALTH IMPACTS OF PVC
4.1. Dioxin and Human Health Concerns
There are major concerns about the human health impacts of dioxin which
have been extensively studied by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) and other scientists. The latest findings on dioxin conclude
that not only is dioxin a probable human carcinogen, but the non-cancer
effects of dioxin may be even more significant. Dioxin has been identified
as a powerful hormone disrupter and is implicated in developmental effects
and immune suppression. Studies in animals have also shown that exposure
to low doses of dioxin in the womb reduced the sperm count of male offspring.23
One of the USEPA's conclusions was that there is no safe level of dioxins.
"The general levels (of dioxin) in the human population are right
at the point where effects are seen in animal studies. This means that
there is no margin of safety"
Professor Claude Hughes, Duke University, North Carolina, member of EPA
document review group 24
The production of PVC is inextricably linked to the production of dioxin.
This is acknowledged by the industry itself.25 ICI's own figures also show
that large amounts of dioxin are being created at their plant in Merseyside,
United Kingdom. Other investigations have shown that sediments from the
Rhine River have increased concentrations of dioxin near a VCM plant in
the Netherlands.26
The problem of dioxin production as a byproduct of PVC manufacture is
not just a local problem. Dioxins are capable of resisting breakdown for
hundreds of years, and because they are highly persistent they can spread
far and wide in the environment and build up in the food chain, concentrating
in those mammals -- including humans -- at the top of the food chain.
Dioxin gets into the food chain either through the air, ending up on
grass eaten by cows, or into the marine food chain from discharges to rivers
which end up in fish and marine mammals.
In Australia, information on dioxin levels in the environment is sketchy.
Monitoring is negligible. However, under the Freedom of Information (FOI)
Act 1989, Greenpeace has obtained the results of dioxin samples from 14
sites around New South Wales. Six of the sampling sites were incinerator
stack emissions from medical, municipal and industrial waste incinerators.
The disposal of used PVC products would have contributed to the high levels
of dioxins found in emissions from these incinerators.
Studies by the Danish EPA,27 the Dutch Environment Ministry28 and the
US Department of Energy29 have all found that increasing the PVC content
of wastes burned in incinerators leads to higher emissions of dioxins.
Dioxin has already been targeted for elimination in many international,
regional and national forums. The Intergovernmental Conference for the
Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Sources of Marine
Pollution identified 12 priority "Persistent Organic Pollutants" (POPs)
for elimination. The Conference, which took place in Washington DC, in
November 1995, committed over 100 participating governments, including
Australia, to the "reduction and/or elimination of emissions, discharges
and, where appropriate, the elimination of the manufacture and use of POPs".
The twelve POPs include dioxins.
At a follow-up meeting in Canberra, Australia, in March 1996, the Intergovernmental
Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) confirmed international support for the
development of a legally binding instrument to phase out these substances.
The IFCS meeting also recommended the development of pollution inventories
as important tools in pollution prevention.
Despite the progress in eliminating dioxin being made in international
agreements, neither the NSW EPA, nor any other Australian Authority has
a legal standard for dioxin emissions to air. As a rule of thumb, the NSW
EPA applies the German standard of 0.1 µg m-3.
If dioxin levels in Australia are to be reduced, then PVC must be phased
out. In the absence of government action, the best way to achieve this
is by specifying alternatives to PVC wherever possible.
4.2. Phthalates and PVC
Some phthalate chemicals which are used as plasticisers in PVC have
already been identified as possible carcinogens in humans.30 They have
also recently been classified as hormone disrupters. DEHP, the chemical
added to PVC to make it soft, belongs to this group of chemicals. It has
been identified as a hormone disrupter because its action is similar to
that of oestrogen, a female hormone.31 Because large quantities of DEHP
are now widely distributed in the environment, evidence is emerging that
we are all exposed to this chemical through our food.
4.3. Vinyl Chloride Monomer (VCM): Health Effects
Research on VCM, one of the building blocks of PVC, has linked it to
various cancers, angiosarcoma*, increased incidence of liver, lung and
brain tumours, and both male and female reproductive disturbance.32 Significant
increases in birth defects have been reported in communities close to VCM
plants.33
5.0. PVC AND
FIRE SAFETY
The widespread use of PVC in modern homes for flooring, wallpaper, shower
curtains, cables and pipes means that building fires are likely to involve
PVC.
Although chlorine in PVC tends to suppress fire, once it does burn,
dangerous chemicals are released. When PVC is involved in a fire, the chlorine
which makes up half of the plastic is released as dry hydrogen chloride
gas. When this gas comes into contact with any water, it immediately turns
into corrosive hydrochloric acid. Unfortunately, the moisture in question
can be the mucus membranes of the eyes, throat or lungs.
The German Federal Office of the Environment has drawn attention to
the dangers arising from PVC in fires, in relation to the formation of
hydrogen chloride gas.
"The high chlorine content of PVC products may give rise to major
hydrogen chloride emissions. Hydrogen chloride ... may cause burns in affected
persons and considerable material damage through corrosion of buildings
and installations ... Damage caused by hydrochloric acid may necessitate
extensive repair work which would not be required after fires without PVC
involvement."
Umweltbundesamt UBA (Federal Office of the Environment, Germany), "Environmental
Damage by PVC -- an overview", Berlin, June 1992
The hydrogen chloride given off during a fire also reacts with the many
additives present in PVC, creating even greater volumes of toxic fumes.34
In addition, heavy metals used as stabilisers in PVC will be released and
this is especially dangerous in the case of cadmium.35
One of the best documented cases of the safety threat posed by hydrogen
chloride released by PVC is the Beverley Hills Supper Club fire of 1977,
in the United States. During the fire, PVC wiring decomposed, forming a
"wispy grey-white smoke" with no visible flames. A total of 161 people
died without any direct involvement with the flames, before any wood started
burning and before carbon monoxide reached dangerous levels. These deaths
and the many respiratory injuries were a direct result of the presence
of PVC.36
Accidental fires in homes and buildings involving large amounts of PVC
also appear to be an important source of dioxin. PVC is now ubiquitous
in modern buildings, and high concentrations of dioxins have been found
in residues around fires which have involved PVC. Laboratory combustion
tests have shown that the dioxin content of fire residues involving PVC
materials is considerably higher than that of residues where PVC-free materials
such as wood were burnt.37 Electrical cables are usually made with PVC
and, in an electrical fire, the plastic sheathing is often the first material
to burn.
In a recent fire at Dusseldorf Airport, in April 1996, 16 people were
killed. Many of them died from toxic fumes given off during the fire by
PVC which was used throughout the building.38
In Melbourne, a fire at a Health Department building in the city in
October 1995 resulted in 1500 people being evacuated. The building was
closed for one week. Although it is known that the fire started at the
switchboard -- where PVC would be abundant -- no monitoring of dioxin contamination
was undertaken.
In addition to dioxin and hydrogen chloride gas, PVC fires in offices
or houses also release other toxic chemicals. These are caused by PVC additives
used as fire-retardants.
Germany and Austria both have strict standards for the level of dioxin
to which the general population should be exposed. Consequently, the authorities
there are required to clean up dioxin contamination following fires. Australia
has no such standards.
The high cost of dioxin clean-up following PVC fires has provided a
major incentive for local authorities to switch to non-PVC materials in
Germany and Austria. A PVC cable fire in the telephone exchange in DŸsseldorf
in 1988, which was extinguished by the fire brigade with just ten litres
of water, resulted in heavy contamination of the whole building with dioxin.
The clean-up operation lasted three years and cost nearly US$12 million.
In Germany, the Insurer's Federation guidelines on the clean-up of damage
caused by fire has classified fires in which large amounts of PVC are involved
in a high-hazard group. This has had a significant impact on insurance
premiums.
6.0. ALTERNATIVES
TO PVC USE IN BUILDINGS
This section of the module examines the alternatives that already exist
to PVC products used in offices, public buildings and homes.
PVC is widely used in buildings. In Australia, the use of PVC in sheathings
for electric cables, floor and wall coverings, guttering, sewer and drain
pipes, and cladding makes the building industry the biggest user of PVC.
Environmental criteria for alternatives to PVC in buildings favour natural
materials, as opposed to artificial ones. Natural materials are generally
non-toxic and renewable if sourced from sustainable operations. Some petroleum-based
plastics may have a role to play as transition materials until better ones
are developed or reintroduced (see Appendix A: An Environmental Review
of Other Plastics).
In 1990, the Danish Environmental Protection Agency estimated that alternative
products for 60-70% of the PVC products used in the building sector could
be found within three years. For the remaining 30-40%, substitutes could
be found within three to five years. The assumption that alternative materials
would mean reduced technical or durability standards has been refuted by
the experience of several towns and cities which have recorded satisfactory
track records with PVC substitutes. Even maintenance costs have often proved
to be lower.39
The decision by the Olympic Co-ordinating Authority and Australian Stadium
2000 Consortium to avoid the use of PVC in the stadium shows the real possibility
of using non-PVC materials in a major, innovative building project.
6.1. Costs
One of the main reasons for the widespread use of PVC in construction
is its cost, rather than the intrinsically superior qualities of the material.
However, if costs as a whole are considered -- including replacement costs
and maintenance -- rather than merely the purchase price of a PVC product,
traditional materials or other alternative materials can have economic
advantages in the long term. Even in the short term, many alternative materials
can compete with PVC on price.
6.2. Pipes and Ducts
In 1993, over half (103,000 tonnes) of all PVC used in Australia was
for plumbing alone. Most is used in rigid pipes for above ground and underground
drainage: in water supply systems, in sewerage and gas pipes, in vent pipes
and pipe fittings. PVC ducts are also often used to carry or protect electrical
cables.
Alternatives to PVC in the plumbing and drainage sector are readily
available and many were used long before PVC. They include concrete, vitrified
clay, steel, cast iron and ductile iron. Alternative plastics include high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) and polypropylene (PP).
European communities which have replaced PVC with substitute materials
are finding these are more durable and thus cost-effective in the longer
term.
Alternative materials to PVC in sewerage pipes may perform better over
time: the city of Nyborg in Denmark reported that the PVC main sewerage
pipe had become extremely brittle and required frequent replacement.40
In Denmark, the EPA has assessed PE and clay sewerage pipes as both technically
and financially viable PVC alternatives.
A report from Graz, Austria, outlines the main disadvantages of PVC,
after 31 years of experience with PVC pipes in parts of the city.41 The
report makes the following conclusions:
1. The number of pipework defects is rising.
2. Repair costs are substantially higher for damaged PVC pipes than
for other materials.
3. The average age of pipes in which damage occurs is 10 years.
4. One pipe (2300 m length) had to be replaced in 1987 at a cost of
10 million Austrian Schillings (A$1.17 m).
5. The cost of installing new PVC pipes is no lower than that of ductile
iron.
6. Most defects occur in sections with an operating pressure of over
7 bars.
When Toronto City Council in Canada recently decided to restrict the
use of PVC piping, one of their major concerns was the leaching of organotin
stabilisers from PVC pipe into drinking water.42 However, their decision
to restrict the use of PVC piping in contaminated soils was based on the
possibility of pollutants, such as pesticides, permeating PVC piping and
contaminating drinking water. Permeation of contaminants is a potential
health hazard for plastic pipes, including PVC.43
In 1993, the Kansas Department of Health and Environment (KDHE) in the
United States found that a 23-year-old PVC pipe used to carry water was
the source of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) contamination of drinking water.44
Other studies have also shown VCM migration from PVC pipes into water.45
Underground discharge and supply pipes
For use as underground pipes, vitrified clay pipes are very durable
and can replace PVC. The expected service life of a clay pipe is commonly
given as 100 years; several manufacturers actually offer 100-year warranties.
Clay pipes have high resistance to chemicals in waste water. The Australian
clay pipe company, Austral Pipe, is promoting its products based on their
environmental acceptability compared to that of PVC.46
Other materials which can replace PVC in underground sewerage systems
are concrete and nodular graphite iron pipes. Concrete pipes have excellent
durability and can better satisfy strength requirements for road construction
than PVC, although the production of concrete is very energy-intensive.
These materials have a longer service life than PVC, but they are 20-30%
more expensive. However, the cost of materials is of less importance in
underground ductwork, where the costs of labour-intensive earthworks (excavation,
pipe laying) account for the largest share of total costs.
Non-PVC plastic underground pipes on the Australian market include high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) and medium-density polyethylene (MDPE). (See also Appendix
A: An Environmental Review of Other Plastics). HDPE wastewater and stormwater
pipes and MDPE water supply pipes have the advantage that they can be laid
straight from rollers, which saves labour and time. PVC requires the use
of hazardous adhesives at every joint. Other plastics can be joined by
simple heat fusion. Furthermore, PVC pipes are more prone to leaking. HDPE
and MDPE pipes are more flexible and shock-resistant. In Europe, the price
of HDPE pipes can be 20-40% lower than that of comparable PVC products.
Already, in Australia the price of MDPE pipes is comparable to that of
standard PVC pipes. The UK gas industry now only uses MDPE pipe because
it is more flexible than PVC.
In addition to MDPE, pressurised water supply pipes can be made from
polypropylene (PP), cast iron, ductile iron and steel. The pressure-resistant
qualities and durability of these materials have been assessed in various
European countries as being superior to PVC.
There are several local and foreign firms producing underground discharge
and supply pipes. They include:
-
Ribloc (Australia) -- HDPE;
-
James Hardie Pipelines (Australia) -- PE;
-
Wavin Hall (Netherlands/Australia) -- HDPE/PP;
-
Geberit/Starion (Switzerland/Australia) -- HDPE;
-
Europlast Rohrwerk (Germany) -- HDPE;
-
Aquatherm (Germany) -- PP;
-
Tersia (Austria) -- PP;
-
Industrial Pipe Systems (Australia) -- MDPE/HDPE;
-
Austral Pipes (Australia) -- Vitrified Clay (VC);
-
PGH (Australia) -- VC;
-
Naylor Claymore (UK) -- VC;
-
Rocla (Australia) -- Concrete;
-
CSR Humes (Australia) -- Concrete;
-
Blucher (Denmark) -- Steel.
Above-ground drainage pipes
For above-ground drainage such as guttering, galvanised steel can be
used as an alternative. Gutters and downpipes are usually made from galvanised
steel or zincalum. PVC gutters become brittle when exposed to extreme cold
or heat. Metal guttering has a longer service life.
Although many building supply firms usually only stock PVC and galvanised
steel pipes, there are some local and foreign firms producing pipes made
of other plastics. They include:
-
Wavin Hall (Netherlands/Australia) -- HDPE/PP;
-
Geberit/Starion (Switzerland/Australia) -- HDPE;
-
Twebo Tubes (Netherlands) -- PP;
-
Milnes/Akatherm (Australia/Netherlands) -- HDPE.
Above-ground HDPE and PP discharge pipes and fittings offer improved durability,
reduced labour installation costs and environmental benefits over PVC.
MDPE is also gaining market share in the water industry.47
6.3. Cables
Cabling is used either to conduct information, as in transmission cables
for computers and communication media, or to conduct electrical energy.
In Australia, some 95% of all electrical insulation is made of PVC. The
use of PVC cables is the most dangerous way in which PVC is used in the
construction industry.
Fortunately, there are already chlorine-free alternatives on the market.
The cable industry has been driven to find chlorine-free alternatives by
the European market. In Germany and Austria, the high cost of dioxin clean-up
following PVC fires, and concerns about the behaviour of PVC cables in
fires, has proved a major incentive for local authorities to switch to
non-PVC materials.
Recent fires in British and American underground rail systems have resulted
in PVC cables being rejected in favour of low-smoke PE cables. The new
metro system in Bilbao, Spain, used PVC-free cabling, made by Pirelli,
for environmental and health reasons.
The European experience has shown that the costs for alternative materials
decrease significantly as they become subject to mass demand. This has
been the case where P
