1. Introduction/summary
The quality of men's sperm declined steadily in the early years of the
21st century until hardly anyone could reproduce in the normal way. Meanwhile,
the countryside was virtually emptied of animals as natural populations
crashed. The first signs of the impending catastrophe were noted in the
1990's, but few people then believed that a cocktail of pollutants that
mimic human hormones could have such profound effects. And so nothing was
done until it was too late. (This chilling scenario was hypothesized in
the New Scientist, 1995.)
Over the last few years, an increasing number of reports have appeared
about reproductive problems in both wildlife and humans. Reports of alligators
with malformed reproductive organs,1 feminisation of fish in
UK rivers2 and changes in the mating behaviour of gulls3
have appeared alongside studies showing a decline in human sperm count
and sperm quality,4 an increase in testicular cancer and genital
abnormalities, such as undescended testicles5, and a rise in
the incidence of breast cancer in women.6
The conclusion of many of these studies is that man made chemicals in
the environment are suspected to be interfering with hormonal systems in
both humans and wildlife.7 Hormones are chemical messengers
which control or mediate vital bodily functions. The hormonal system regulates
the development of vital functions in the foetus including the reproductive
organs, the immune system and intelligence and behaviour.
It is our children that are most at risk. Persistent chemicals in the
mothers body pass through the placenta to the foetus.8 The developing
foetus is also more susceptible to the adverse effects of any pollutants,
because it is growing rapidly and is immature in a number of its bodily
functions.9 Many chemicals are also passed through the mothers breast milk
to the nursing infant.10 It has been estimated that an infant which is
breast fed for one year will receive between 4 and 12% of its total lifetime
exposure to dioxins.11 As Dr Theo Colborn says in her newly released book
Our Stolen Future Children have the right to be born chemical free. 12
As the evidence about wildlife and human health effects accumulates,
the list of chemicals identified as synthetic hormone disrupters has also
grown longer. These chemicals can work in different ways; for example,
among those that disrupt sex related functions, many mimic the female hormone
oestrogen (and have a feminising effect). Others might be anti androgens
(which would block testosterone and have a demasculinising effect).
Unlike natural hormones, some of these synthetic hormone disrupters
build up in body fat, are highly resistant to breakdown, and accumulate
through the food chain. Natural hormones are broken down once their message
has been delivered; persistent hormone pollutants can cause damage over
and over again.
Synthetic chemicals known to be hormone disruptors:13
-
numerous pesticides, many of them synthetic chlorinated chemicals, such
as DDT, lindane, methoxychlor, chlordane, dieldrin, hexachlorobenzene,
kepone ,14 dicofol, kelthane, synthetic pyrethroids, and triazines (eg.
atrazine). Breakdown products of some pesticides can also cause hormonal
disruption.
-
PCBs, industrial chemicals used as heat transfer and hydraulic fluids,
flame retardants, dielectric fluids for capacitors and transformers. Production
in the US was banned in 1977 & they are no longer produced.
-
dioxins and furans, an accidental by-product of the chlorine industry,
especially the manufacture, disposal and combustion of the chlorinated
plastic PVC. They are also organochlorines.
-
bisphenol A (a key ingredient of the plastic polycarbonate, which is produced
using chlorine and phosgene. It is an ingredient in the coating inside
some tin cans, some reusable milk bottles, and in dental fillings),
-
alkylphenols (a breakdown product of industrial detergents)
-
phthalates, chemical plasticisers extensively used in PVC and food packaging
materials. At least 95% of DEHP, the most common phthalate, is used in
PVC plastic15, which is a product of the chlorine industry. Over three
million tonnes of phthalates are consumed every year 16 and they are found
throughout the environment. 17
-
butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) a food anti-oxidant.
Chlorine and PVC
Many of the chemicals known as hormone disruptors are linked to the
manufacture of chlorine. Some such as DDT, Lindane and 2,4-D pesticides
are produced intentionally. But others, dioxins and furans, for example,
are accidental by-products of numerous processes which produce, process,
or dispose of materials containing chlorine, such as the chlorinated plastic
PVC. These chemicals are all called organochlorines.
Many hormone disruptors have already been banned such as PCBs, or restricted
in some countries, such as DDT. In contrast, the chlorinated plastic PVC,
responsible for two significant hormone disruptors, is still a common consumer
product D the second most common plastic used today. The world market for
PVC plastic is still growing at a rate of 5% annually,18 particularly in
East Asia.19
Dioxin, a highly potent synthetic hormone disruptor, is generated during
the production and disposal of PVC, and also during accidental fires. Phthalates,
used in making soft PVC products, are the most common of the hormone disruptors,
in terms of the quantity found in the environment. PVC plastic uses the
largest quantities of the phthalates.
Virtually all uses of PVC plastic are avoidable. By choosing alternatives
to PVC, which are readily available, and thus ending the production of
PVC, we could dramatically reduce the levels of these hormone disruptors
entering the environment. We don't need to risk our childrens health, their
future, or the environment, by delaying action, as proposed by industry
and some governments.
No safe dose
Many current regulations designed to protect human health are based
on risk assessment, which attempts to determine safe doses of individual
chemicals doses which will not cause unacceptable levels of clearly identifiable
health effects such as cancer. This is a permissive approach trying to
identify how much pollution you can expose people to without making too
many of them ill.
The same approach is used when pollutants are released by industrial
processes into the environment. Again the assumption is made that there
is a safe level of pollution that the environment can cope with. Such safe
limits also don't take into account the total release of pollutants throughout
the life cycle of a product from production, through to its use and disposal.
Time and again, it has been found that this permissive approach does
not work. For example, it was impossible to predict the damage caused to
the ozone layer by CFCs. Scientists did not predict that many chemicals
which were thought to be safe at the doses individuals were exposed to
would disrupt hormone systems and have the potential to cause permanent
damage to developing children.
Regulators and industry may have to accept that there are not necessarily
safe doses of many of the chemicals that are produced. To date, only a
few of the tens of thousands of man-made chemicals produced have yet been
tested for their ability to disrupt the hormonal system.20
Time for precautionary
action
In Article 2 of the OSPAR Convention, the signatories agreed that:
The contracting parties shall apply:
The precautionary principle, by virtue of which preventive measures
are to be taken when there are reasonable grounds for concern that substances
or energy introduced, directly or indirectly, into the marine environment
may bring about hazards to human health, harm living resources and marine
ecosystems, damage amenities or interfere with other legitimate uses of
the sea, even when there is no conclusive evidence of a causal relationship
between the inputs and the effects.
The traditional risk assessment approach, which does not even begin to
address the problem of hormone pollution, is no longer valid. New strategies
are needed, based on the precautionary principle, which calls for preventive
action against chemicals where there is any evidence of harm. It means
that all efforts should be taken to prevent the release of these chemicals
into the environment, particularly those which persist and build up in
human bodies, and can therefore be passed on to the next generation. In
practice, this will mean ceasing to manufacture or use them.
In line with the precautionary principle, some communities, local and
national Governments are already acting to phase out products which use
or release these chemicals. For example, in November 1995, the Swedish
Parliament voted to phase out plasticised PVC and rigid PVC with harmful
additives, because PVC is not a part of an ecological society.21
The question is not whether to phase out PVC
but how PVC should be phased
out.22
Swedish Environment Minister, Anna Lindh, November 1995.
This report explains the links between PVC plastic and two significant
hormone disruptors dioxin and phthalates. It also highlights the available
alternatives and points to action that can be taken to avoid the risks
that PVC presents to the hormonal systems of human and wildlife.
2. The hormone system
The body's hormone system, also known as the endocrine system, is a
complex internal chemical messenger system, which regulates vital functions
such as our reproductive systems, behaviour, and immune systems. In particular,
the hormone system controls the development of these vital functions in
the unborn child. Hormones are produced by a variety of glands in different
parts of the body and released into the blood stream. The hormones bind
to special receptors in organs or tissues and cause them to respond in
a specific way. Hormones are extremely powerful, having effects at levels
of only parts per trillion. But in our bodies, concentrations of hormones
are strictly controlled.
One of the most familiar hormones is adrenaline, which is released in
response to danger or stress and which prepares the body for swift action
the fight or flight reaction. Also well known are the sex hormones. The
female hormones progesterone and oestrogen control the menstrual cycle,
pregnancy and childbirth. The male counterpart, testosterone, is responsible
for masculine libido and behaviour. The sex hormones are also vital for
the correct development of each child's reproductive system in the early
stages of life.
The primary function of most hormones are known, but there are complex
interactions and subtle effects that scientists do not yet fully understand.
However, it is becoming clear that a large number of industrial chemicals
have the ability to disrupt this intricate control system, with potentially
disastrous results for health and well-being.
The best studied chemicals are those which are oestrogen mimics or,
simply, oestrogenic. These chemicals can disrupt the development of the
reproductive system if given to the mother at the critical period of pregnancy;
for example in animals exposed to the phthalate BBP (butyl benzyl phthalate)23
and in humans exposed to the synthetic hormone DES (diethylstylbestrol).
Daughters born to mothers who took DES suffer increased rates of a rare
vaginal cancer, and both sons and daughers experience congenital abnormalities
of their reproductive systems.24 It is a complex area of research:
It's a major nightmare trying to unravel what is going on, to find
out how much oestrogen is present and what its consequences are 50 years
of research is needed.25
Other chemicals may act in other ways, such as by counteracting male hormones.
These are known as anti-androgens, which can block the effects of testosterone
and affect the development of the male reproductive system.26 Hormone disruptors
can also act by preventing hormones from being produced, accelarating the
breakdown and elimination of hormones, and interfering with the breakdown
process so that they cant be excreted.27
3. Evidence of effects in humans
and wildlife
Over the last three years there have been several reports that sperm
count has been seriously reduced in humans.28 Sperm quality has also been
affected.29 Environmental factors, including hormone disruptors are suspected
to be an important factor in this decline.30 One possible way that this
could happen is through the reduction of the number of Sertoli cells in
the testes. Since these cells support the sperm cells as they develop,
less Sertoli cells means less sperm.31
The industry often cites studies that show that other factors are responsible,
for example heat, driving, and conclude that chemicals cannot be considered
a factor.32 Lifestyle may indeed be a factor for some men. However, if
these were overriding factors it could be expected that older men, who
would have been affected in these ways for much longer, would have a lower
sperm count. In fact, studies show a real sperm count drop in younger men.33
Further, animal studies demonstrate that dioxin 34 octylphenol, DES and
BBP 35 reduce sperm counts. Lifestyle can hardly be considered a factor
in animals.
In addition, attempts are sometimes made to confuse the issue. As reported
by the German PVC industry,36 a National Institute of Health seminar in
Norway came to the conclusion that there is no evidence at all of disruptions
to male procreative capacity. These claims are highly misleading, as reports
have been concerned with the phenomena of reduced sperm counts, and reduced
fertility has not been widely observed, although if the trend continues
a decline in fertility is possible.37
It is not possible at this time to link specific chemicals directly
to these reductions. There are probably many factors, including lifestyle,
that could play a part alongside environmental contaminants. However, the
evidence strongly suggests that hormone disrupting chemicals are involved
and, further, that dioxins and phthalates can have these effects if administered
before birth.38
Hormone disruptors, especially organochlorines, are also thought to
be to influencing a rise in reproductive problems in wildlife, and have
been shown to cause adverse effects on animals in laboratory experiments.
In July 1991, Theo Colborn invited a group of 20 scientists to discuss
their research. To their surprise, the scientists all agreed that, in their
individual research, they were seeing evidence that industrial chemicals
in the environment were harming the endocrine systems of fish, birds and
mammals. They issued a consensus document, now known as the Wingspread
statement, which began39:
We are certain of the following:
A large number of man-made chemicals that have been released into the
environment, as well as a few natural ones, have the potential to disrupt
the endocrine system of animals, including humans. Among these are the
persistent, bioaccumulative, organohalogen compounds that include some
pesticides (fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides) and industrial chemicals,
other synthetic products, and some metals.
Many wildlife populations are already affected by these compounds. The
impacts include thyroid dysfunction in birds and fish; decreased fertility
in birds, fish, shellfish, and mammals; decreased hatching success in birds,
fish and turtles; gross birth deformities in birds, fish and turtles; metabolic
abnormalities in birds, fish, and mammals; behavioural abnormalities in
birds; demasculinization and feminization in male fish, birds, and mammals;
defeminization and masculinization of female fish and birds; and compromised
immune systems in birds and mammals.
4. Hormone pollutants and PVC
Some of the chemicals known to disrupt the hormone system are used mainly
in industrial applications rather than in consumer products and only indirectly
reach the consumer, through releases into the environment and food chain
during the production process and/or use. There is one product, however,
which is produced in quantities of millions of tons per year, and which
is routinely made into consumer products. It is PVC.
There are two main groups of hormone disrupting chemicals associated
with PVC. During the production, disposal and combustion of PVC, large
quantities of dioxins are formed as an unwanted by-product.40 Dioxin already
has a reputation as the most toxic man-made chemical ever. Most attention
has focused on dioxin's carcinogenicity, but it is also a potent hormone
disruptor. The other group of hormone disruptors associated with PVC is
the phthalates.41 These are plasticisers - chemicals mixed in with the
PVC to soften it and make it flexible.
In addition to dioxin and phthalates, other substances suspected as
hormone disruptors are also used as additives in PVC plastic, including
the organotins, cadmium, lead 42 and small quantities of alkylphenols.
Alkyl phenols are used as a process chemical in the polymerisation of vinyl
chloride monomer (VCM).43 PCBs can also be created as by-products during
the manufacture or disposal of PVC plastic.44
5 Dioxin and hormone disruption
Dioxin has been looked at most closely in relation to its cancer-effects,
but a large body of evidence has also established its abilities as a potent
hormone disruptor.
Dioxin toxicology is complex. The basic mechanism of action via a receptor
known as the Ah receptor is well established, but the detailed biochemical
routes by which its various effects take place are not yet fully understood.
Most research has been carried out on the most toxic form of dioxin, 2,3,7,8-TCDD,
which is also sometimes called TCDD or simply dioxin.
Hormone disruption caused by dioxins
TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) is known to be an anti-androgen.
Several animal studies indicate that 2,3,7,8-TCDD affects the levels of
reproductive hormones (see US EPA 1994 for review). In adult men that have
been exposed to dioxins at work, levels of testosterone were reduced.45
The ability of dioxin to affect testosterone levels also has implications
for the unborn male. When pregnant rats were given just one dose of dioxin,
on a particular day of pregnancy, the male offspring had lowered levels
of testosterone 46 and a reduced sperm count.47 Their sexual behaviour
was also demasculinised and feminised.48
While not all the reasons for these changes have been discovered, alteration
of the levels of testosterone and other hormones at the critical time for
the development of the male reproductive system is thought to be an important
factor. 49 Worryingly, the effects of dioxin on male animals affected before
birth seem to be permanent.50
This indicates that the timing of the dose is critical and may be more
important than its concentration; extremely low levels can cause permanent
damage at particular stages of development.
Dioxin is also known to alter the concentrations of thyroid hormones
in animals51 and new-born human babies.52 Correct functioning of the thyroid
and its hormone systems are essential for correct development and growth
in children including the developing central nervous system and brain.
Possible effects of disruption of the thyroid hormones include low birth
weight, hyperactivity, impaired learning and memory. Again, damage before
birth may cause changes that are permanent.53
6 The link between PVC and dioxin
Dioxins are now present throughout the environment and the food chain;
everyone is exposed to them in their diets, particularly through fatty
foods such as dairy products.55 The evidence is reviewed in the Greenpeace
report Body of Evidence; the effects of chlorine on human health.56 Dioxins
produced in the PVC lifecycle will enter the global environment and build
up in the food chain, becoming part of the everyday exposure that the whole
human and animal population is now subjected to.
PVC, which is the second most common plastic, is used in numerous different
products. The largest quantity is used in building materials, such as cables,
floorings, window frames, water pipes and wallpapers. It is also used in
packaging, including food packaging, furniture and children's toys. PVC
is linked in numerous ways with the formation and release of dioxin, as
follows:
a) Manufacturing by-products
It has been known since 1989 that dioxin is produced in the manufacturing
of the chemicals from which PVC is made. It was first discovered by Erik
Evers; his investigations showed that dioxins were generated in the oxychlorination
process, a fundamental step in the PVC production chain.57 This results
in contamination of the liquid wastes. ICI, who uses this process at their
plant at Runcorn, in the north-west of England, described the oxychlorination
process and the creation of dioxins as by-products, as follows:
The reactions include all of the ingredients and conditions necessary
to form (the dioxins)
PCDD/PCDFs, i.e. air or oxygen, a hydrocarbon (ethylene etc.), chlorine
or hydrogen chloride, a copper catalyst, an ideal temperature and an adequate
residence time. It is difficult to see how any of these conditions could
be modified so as to prevent PCDD/PCDF formation without seriously impairing
the reaction for which the process is designed.58
The wastes produced at ICI's plant contain high levels of dioxins.59 Greenpeace
found a similar picture in 1994 when they investigated the PVC industry
in the USA.60
Despite having been identified as a dioxin source, however, very little
research has been done on the PVC industry. Nevertheless, where it has
been done, there always appear to be problems. Although dioxins are produced
by other processes such as incinerators, the dioxins produced by the oxychlorination
process have a very clear fingerprint which can often be tied to dioxins
found near factories. In the Netherlands, the manufacture of vinyl chloride
monomer (VCM) caused extensive dioxin contamination of Rotterdam harbour.61
In Venice, Greenpeace analysed sediment from the Porto Marghera. It clearly
showed contamination of the lagoon with dioxin by the Enichem plant, where
VCM is among the chlorinated chemicals manufactured. After conducting their
own sampling, the authorities were so concerned about the findings that
they have closed down the wastewater treatment plant responsible for the
releases while they conduct further investigations.62 Greenpeace has also
found that local mussels have been contaminated with the typical PVC industry-type
dioxins. Consequently, these pollutants may be entering the human food
chain.
In Germany, the Environmental Ministry of Lower Saxony 63 found extremely
high levels of dioxins in sludges from the waste water treatment plant
for EVC's PVC production at Wilhelmshaven. Dioxin was also found in a dump
where these sludges were disposed.
In addition to dioxin resulting from the PVC production process, whenever
PVC is burned (either deliberately by incineration or accidentally in fires),
or is recycled (for example, when metals such as copper or steel are recycled),
they can contribute to emissions of dioxin into the environment, as follows:
b) Accidental fires
PVC causes dioxin formation at accidental fires, when PVC is present
in building materials or furnishings. The German EPA recommended in the
long run, PVC products should be substituted by other materials in all
areas where the potential dioxin and hydrogen chloride formation in case
of fire poses a substantial risk for human health and the environment.64
c) Recycling and Disposal
During the recycling or disposal of products containing PVC, dioxins
can be released. Numerous PVC compounds, or combinations of PVC with other
materials, have been identified as potential dioxin sources. These include
PVC + paper (e.g. wallpaper), PVC + copper (cables), PVC + wood (furniture),
PVC + steel (cars), etc.65 The reasons for the dioxin formation are numerous.
-
PVC coated (wall) paper and wood (furniture) is often burned in the open
by individuals in their back yards, or by companies in inadequate furnaces
that are not suited at all for burning such hazardous wastes (no scrubbers,
low temperature incineration etc.) 66 The German EPA requires all furnaces,
(from household fires to industrial furnaces) to be free of material containing
chlorine, such as PVC.67
-
The presence of PVC in steel products leads to the release of large amounts
of dioxin when these products (for example, cars) are scrapped and sent
to (secondary) steel mills for steel recycling. While of course metal recycling
is an important and reasonable practice to cut down primary steel production
and conserve raw materials, the environmental impact of steel recycling
is greatly increased when scrap metal is contaminated with chlorinated
compounds, including PVC plastic.68
-
Also secondary copper smelters recycling PVC contaminated copper scrap
(for example, PVC coated cables) are a major source of dioxin contamination
in the environment via dioxin emissions. This is partly because the formation
of dioxin is catalysed by the presence of copper. Copper smelters are recognised
as an important dioxin source. For example, in February 1988, the regional
authorities responsible for the Austrian copper smelter of Montanwerke
Brixlegg AG issued a ban on the use of PVC containing material to cut down
on dioxin emissions. This resulted in an immediate reduction of one third
of these emissions. 69
In addition, in many parts of the world, cable scrap is burned in the open
air. For example, in 1994 Greenpeace discovered that imported PVC cables
are recycled in the slums of Jakarta, Indonesia simply by burning the PVC
off the cables in big steel drums in people's backyards.70
d) PVC and incineration
PVC is usually the main source of chlorine in the municipal waste stream,
in the form of packaging, household products, old furniture and fittings,
and therefore is the main contributor to dioxin formation in municipal
waste incinerators.71
Another important dioxin source is hospital incineration. For example,
the US EPA listed hospital incinerators as the No. 1 dioxin source in the
US.72 Looking at the feedstock of hospital incinerators, PVC medical products
are a major source of chlorine. PVC is used in hospitals in many disposable
products such as tubing systems, blood and infusion bags, gloves and often
also packaging. The practice of burning those medical products (which often
also contain the phthalate DEHP) leads to the release of dioxin from hospital
incinerators.
7 Phthalates and hormone
disruption
The phthalates are a group of compounds used to soften PVC and make
it more flexible. They have already been identified as priority substances
under some legislation because of their toxicity, which includes possible
carcinogenicity.73 However, they have also recently been added to the list
of chemicals which mimic the female hormone oestrogen.
Not all of the phthalates in use have been tested for their ability
to disrupt hormones. However, three phthalates tested by one group of researchers
(bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), di-n-butyl
phthalate (DBP)) were all weakly oestrogenic. They may still be toxicologically
important because of the high doses to which people may be exposed. A related
compound, bis-(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA), was also oestrogenic. All four
of these compounds are used in PVC products.74 BBP has also been shown
to reduce the testicular weight and function of rats exposed via their
mother before and shortly after birth. Sperm production was also reduced.75
The phthalates are known to be toxic to developing embryos, causing
malformation and death.76 The death of foetuses caused by butylbenzyl phthalate
appears to be linked to reduced levels of progesterone, a female hormone
essential for the control of pregnancy.77 Phthalates are global polluters.
DEHP can be found anywhere in the sea, lakes and rivers as well as in the
rain, the soil and sediments all over the globe.78 For example, they have
been found in Antarctic sediments,79 and in air over the Pacific and Atlantic
oceans.80 They are thought to be the most abundant environmental contaminants.81
Phthalates are persistent and can bioaccumulate, so generalised environmental
contamination can lead to exposure of humans through food. Phthalates and
other oestrogenics such as DEHA used in food packaging can also be directly
transferred into food.82
8 Phthalates and PVC
Large quantities of phthalates are produced each year. Globally, it
is estimated that the world consumption of phthalates is 3.25 million tonnes,
and that of this quantity, DEHP accounts for about 2.1 million tonnes.83
In Germany alone 250,000 tonnes are produced annually, with BASF being
the biggest German producer.84 In the USA, it is estimated that 300 million
pounds of phthalates are produced every year about 270 million pounds of
this is DEHP.85 The major chemical companies producing DEHP and PVC are
listed in Appendix 1.
Phthalates can be released into the environment not only by the factories
that manufacture them, but during the processing of plastics that contain
them, during the products life and even after it is disposed of.86 The
highest volume phthalate produced is DEHP (di-ethyl-hexyl-phthalate) which
represents between 50 and 90% of DEHP phthalate production.87 In 1993,
at least 95% of DEHP produced was used as an additive for PVC plastic.88
Phthalates in general and DEHP in particular are used as a plastic additive,
a softener, to produce soft PVC products such as PVC (vinyl) floorings,
wall paper, cable coatings, toys, packaging and fashion goods.
Although the phthalate DEHP has to be labeled in the European Union
as environmentally hazardous because of its toxic properties and its persistence,89
there are no regulations restricting the use of DEHP, and products containing
DEHP are not labeled. Some products, for example, mouldings and sealants,
can contain up to 60% of the total weight of plasticiser, making it the
single largest part of the product, even more than the PVC itself.90
With phthalates the usual approach of reducing or minimising emissions
from the production process does not work. The German EPA stated that:
As the greater proportion of emissions is released diffusely from products
containing DEHP as a plasticiser, including principally PVC, regulatory
measures must be imposed at this point. We are therefore of the opinion
that the use of DEHP plasticiser must be considerably restricted.91 No
time should be wasted as the current environmental concentrations in compartments
with release potential are already so high that they may cause environmental
damage. 92
9 PVC alternatives
Taking into account that the annual global PVC production is about 20
million tonnes and about half of the raw PVC is processed to make soft
PVC products containing plasticiser, the contribution of PVC to the quantities
of hormone disruptors released into the environment is very large. It is
also avoidable for the vast majority of uses.
Alternatives to virtually all PVC products exist. The following chart
gives an overview of the main substitution materials for the most frequent
PVC applications. All of these products are effective substitutes for PVC,
however, in some cases, environmental considerations should also be taken
into account, for example, with aluminium, which is uses large amounts
of energy during raw material processing. It is generally preferable to
select natural products such as wood or glass, rather than other chlorine
free plastics, except when these are not available. It is important to
ensure that wood, for example, is sourced from sustainable forest resources.
| PVC Product |
Substitution Material |
| WINDOWS |
wood (pine, larch, fir, spruce, beech), chlorine
free plastics |
| FLOORINGS |
ceramic tiles, wood, parquetry, linoleum, rubber,
stoneware tiles, cork, sisal hemp, terrazzo (Venetian wash), chlorine free
plastic (polyolefine) |
| WALLS |
brickwork, pebble dash, wood, gypsum plaster
board |
| WALLPAPER |
uncoated paper (made from chlorine free recycled
fibres), environmentally sound paints, paper wallpaper with protective
coating on acrylate base, ceramic tiles |
| FACADES, CURTAIN WALLS |
plaster, wood |
| ROLL JOINTS, HAND RAILS |
wood, metal |
| FURNITURE |
wood, metal |
| BLINDS, SHUTTERS |
wood, wooden shutters, textile blinds inside,
etc. |
| WEATHER/DRAUGHT STRIPS |
natural rubber |
| SEWAGE PIPES |
concrete, earthenware, stoneware, polyethylene
and polypropylene pipes |
| SANITARY INSTALLATIONS |
earthenware pipes, stoneware, steel, cast iron,
(e.g., pipes, pipe casing) copper pipes, polyethylene and polypropylene
pipes |
| ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS & CABLES |
chlorine free plastics like PE, special rubber |
| ROOF SHEETING |
polyolefins, bitumen sheeting |
| PACKAGING |
if packaging is necessary, reusable packaging,
cardboard, wood; if plastic is necessary, PE, PP |
| MEDICAL PRODUCTS |
change from disposable (usually PVC) to reusable
products e.g. redon bottles; reusable scalpel handles, refillable glass
bottles; if disposable products are necessary, for example tubings and
blood bags, chlorine free plastics like PE gloves, or latex, natural rubber,
PE infusion bags, PE bags. |
| TOYS |
Wood, textiles. |
10. Phasing out PVC
A large number of communities and states have restricted the use of
PVC, showing that it is possible to use alternative materials. In addition,
some national Governments have also taken action for a wider ban on PVC.
PVC free Communities
Germany: The first PVC free community was Bielefeld, in1987.
Since then, restrictions on PVC have grown and about 200 communities and
states now have PVC restrictions in place.
Australia: The Sydney 2,000 Olympics is committed to environmental
criteria based on the concept of ecologically sustainable development,
including:
OA commitment to minimise the use of PVC. In particular, no PVC to
be used in plumbing and drainage pipes or flooring material (vinyl).94
Austria: 6 States and regional capitals, including Vienna, and at
least 11 smaller communities have
resolutions to avoid PVC.
Japan: Abiko City and Narasino City assemblies have passed resolutions
to reduce the use of PVC. In addition the Chiba prefecture and Nakano congress
have also passed similar resolutions.
Luxembourg: The City of Luxembourg authorities avoid PVC, although
there is no formal resolution. A PVC free construction working group, with
representatives from several Government Ministries, has existed since 1993.
Netherlands: 17 Dutch communities have signed a declaration to
avoid PVC, 147 have also stated they will avoid PVC wherever possible;
these include Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht and Den Hague.
Norway: Norway's second biggest town Bergen made a decision in
1991 to phase out PVC.
Sweden: 128 communities in Sweden have agreed to avoid PVC, including
Gothenberg.
Denmark: The county of Aarhus have introduced a policy of buying
PVC free alternatives for all public purchases.
National commitments
Spain: The Spanish Senate has asked the government to substitute
the use of PVC in packaging with other non polluting materials and to make
a study on the risks of PVC and the possibilities of a PVC phase out in
Spain.
Switzerland: In 1992, the Swiss Government banned the use of
PVC mineral water bottles, after a voluntary scheme set up by industry
failed. Despite challenges by the PVC industry, the Supreme Court rejected
their case and upheld the ban.
Denmark: The Danish Parliament is currently considering a proposal
by the Socialist People's Party to phase out PVC by 2000. The Danish Minister,
has put forward thoughts along the same lines.
Sweden: In November 1995, the Swedish Parliament voted to phase
out both soft and rigid PVC speedily, following a recommendation from the
Committee for Agriculture, which stated:
The Committee's opinion is that it is possible to make an overall
assessment of today's PVC in all its parts from chlorine manufacture to
waste. It is the Committee's opinion that such an overall assessment shows
that PVC cannot be part of an eco-cycle society. Today's plasticised PVC,
as well as rigid PVC with environmentally harmful additives, should therefore
be phased out. The phase out should begin speedily.
11. What should be done
The stakes are so high here that I don't believe we can wait and
I can imagine twenty years from now, the grandchild coming to us and saying:
well, you knew this was going on with animals, why didn't you do anything
about it? Can we afford to say well, we were waiting to confirm this state
in humans? And I think the answer is no, we shouldn't be waiting, we should
be doing something now.
-- Dr Ann Soto, BBC Horizon, 1996.96
As has been demonstrated by progressive countries, industries and communities,
it is possible to take steps to address hormone disruption. The first and
most immediate step is to phase out PVC plastic, and replace it with readily
available alternatives.
-
All policy, both national and international must be based on the precautionary
principle, which takes action when there are reasonable grounds to suspect
that adverse effects may be occurring or may occur.
-
Other countries must follow the example of Sweden and begin a PVC phase
out.
-
Countries around the North Sea, who are already committed to eliminate
the emission of all hazardous substances within 25 years under the North
Sea Ministers' Conference 1995, should prioritise PVC for phase out.
-
The US Environmental Protection Agency, which is currently re-assessing
dioxin, should take the lead with an action plan to phase out products
which result in dioxin pollution, with the priority on PVC.
-
An international instrument which addresses the elimination of Persistent
Organic Pollutants D many of which are hormone polluters such as dioxin
needs to be negotiated urgently. This process has already begun with the
Washington Declaration, which was agreed at a UN Sponsored meeting in November
1995, attended by 100 countries. It identified the need to eliminate Persistent
Organic Pollutants, with the priority on 12 dirty dozen chemicals, all
of them organochlorines, which include dioxins, PCBs and several pesticides.
-
Industry should clearly label PVC to identify what it is to the consumer
-
Alternatives should be labeled PVC or chlorine free.
-
Consumers, local authorities and retailers should stop buying PVC where
they can identify it, and where it is impossible to identify, avoid plastics.
The easiest way to identify PVC is by the number 3 in the recycling symbol,
however, not all PVC is identified in this way.
12. Appendices
TABLE OF MAJOR EUROPEAN AND US PRODUCERS
OF DEHP AND PVC
| COMPANY NAME & LOCATION |
COUNTRY |
CHEMICAL |
| Auseon Pty. Ltd., Altona, Victoria |
Australia |
PVC |
| ICI Australia Operations Pty. Ltd.
Rhodes, New South Wales
|
Australia |
DOP |
| ICI Australia Operations Pty. Ltd
Botany, New South Wales.
|
Australia |
PVC |
| ICI Laverton North, Victoria |
Australia |
PVC |
| BASF Antwerpen NV, Antwerpen |
Belgium |
PVC |
| LVM NV, Tessenderlo, Limburg |
Belgium |
PVC |
| Pantochim S.A., Feluy, Hainaut |
Belgium |
DEHP |
| Solvic snc, Jemeppe sur Sambre Namur |
Belgium |
PVC |
| UCB-Ftal sa, Oostende West Vlaanderen |
Belgium |
DEHP |
| Spolana, Neratovice, Stredocesky |
Czech Rep. |
PVC |
| Neste Oy, Chemicals, Porvoo, Uusimaa |
Finland |
DEHP |
| Neste Oy, Polystyrene, Porvoo, Uusimaa |
Finland |
PVC |
| Elf Atochem SA, Chauny, Aisne |
France |
DEHP |
| Elf Atochem SA,
- Balan, Ain.
- Brignoud, Isere
- Saint Auban, Alpes Maritimes
- Saint Fons, Rhone
|
France |
PVC |
| Shell Chimie SA, Berre-l'Etang, Bouches du Rhone |
France |
PVC |
| Societe Artesienne de Vinyle SA, Mazingarbe, Pas
de Calais |
France |
PVC |
| Solvay SA, Tavaux, Jura |
France |
PVC |
| BASF Aktiengesellschaft
Ludwigshafen, Rheinland -Pfalz
|
Germany |
DEHP, PVC |
| BUNA GmbH, Schkopau, Sachsen-Anhalt |
Germany |
DEHP, PVC |
| EVC (Deutschland) GmbH,
Wilhelmshaven, Niedersachsen
|
Germany |
PVC |
| Hoechst Aktiengesellschaft,
Frankfurt am Main, Hessen Oberhausen, Nordhein-Westfalen
|
Germany |
DEHP |
| Huels Aktiengesellschaft, Marl
Nordhein-Westfalen
|
Germany |
DEHP,PVC |
| Solvay Kunststoffe Gmbh, Rheinberg
Nordrhein-Westfalen
|
Germany |
PVC |
| Vinnolit Kunststoff Gmbh,
- Burghausen, Bayern
- Burgkirchen, Bayern
- Hurth, Nordhein-Westfalen
- Koln, Nordrhein Westfalen
|
Germany |
PVC |
| EKO-Hellenic Refineries and Chemicals
of Macedonia Industrial and Commercial Company AE
Thessaloniki
|
Greece |
PVC |
| Borsodchem Rt, Kazincbarcika, Borsod-Abauj-Zemplen |
Hungary |
PVC |
| EVC (Italia) SpA,
- Brindisi, Puglia
- Porto Marghera, Veneto
- Porto Torres, Sardegna
- Ravenna, Emilia-Romagna
|
Italy |
PVC |
| Industrie Generali SpA, Samarate Lombardia |
Italy |
DEHP,PVC |
| Lonza SpA, San Giovanni Valdarno, Toscana |
Italy |
DEHP |
| Solvay SA, Ferrara, Emilia-Romagna |
Italy |
PVC |
| Societa Italiana Serie Acetica
Sintetica SpA, Pioltello, Lombardia
|
Italy |
DEHP |
| Asahi Glass Company Ltd |
Japan |
PVC |
| Central Chemical Company Ltd, |
|
|
| Kawasaki, Kanagawa |
Japan |
PVC |
| Chisso Corporation,
Minamata, Kumamoto
Mizushima, Okayama
|
Japan |
PVC |
| Chisso Petrochemical Corporation, Ichihara,
Chiba |
Japan |
DEHP, PVC |
| Denki Kagaku Kogyo K.K., Ichihara, Chiba |
Japan |
PVC |
| Japan PVC Ltd, Senboku, Osaka |
Japan |
PVC |
| Kaneka Corporation,
Kashima, Ibaraki,
Settsu, Osaka
Takasago, Hyogo
|
Japan |
PVC |
| Kawasaki Organic Chemical Co., Ltd, Kawasaki, Kanagawa |
Japan |
PVC |
| Kureha Chemical Industry Co., Ltd, Iwaki, Fukushima |
Japan |
PVC |
| Kyowa Yuka Company Ltd, Yokkaichi, Mie |
Japan |
DEHP |
| Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Company Inc. Misushima,
Kurashiki, Okayama |
Japan |
DEHP |
| Mitsubishi Kasei Vinyl Company,
Kurashiki, Okayama
Yokkaichi, Mie
|
Japan |
PVC |
| Nippon Zeon Company, Ltd,
Misushima, Kurashiki, Okayama,
Takaoka, Toyama
|
Japan |
PVC |
| Shin-Etsu Chemical Company, Ltd. Kashima, Ibaraki |
Japan |
PVC |
| Sumitomo Chemical Company, Ltd,
Ichihara, Chiba
Nihama, Ehime
|
Japan |
PVC |
| Sun Arrow Chemical Company, Ltd, Tokuyama, Yamaguchi |
Japan |
PVC |
| Toagosei Chemical Industry Co., Ltd, Tokushima,
Tokushima |
Japan |
PVC |
| Toho Rika Kogyo K.K. Nagoya, Aichi |
Japan |
DEHP |
| Tokuyama Sekisui Co., Ltd, Shin-Nanyo, Yamaguchi |
Japan |
PVC |
| Tosoh Corporation, Shin Nanyo, Yamaguchi |
Japan |
PVC |
| DSM Resins Benelux BV, Hoek van Holland, Zuid Holland |
Netherlands |
DEHP |
| LVM Limburg BV, Beek-Geleen, Limburg |
Netherlands |
PVC |
| ROVIN vof, Rotterdam-Pernis, Zuid Holland |
Netherlands |
PVC |
| Norsk Hydro a.s., Petrochemicals Division, Heroya,
Telemark |
Norway |
PVC |
| Zaklady Azotowe Kedzierzyn SA Kedzierzyn-Kozle,
Opole |
Poland |
DEHP |
| Zaklady Tworzyw Sztucznych Boryszew D Erg, Warszawa |
Poland |
DEHP |
| Zaklady Azotowe Wloclawek,Wtoctawek |
Poland |
PVC |
| Zaklady Azotowe W Tarnowie- Moscicach SA, Tarnow |
Poland |
PVC |
| Zaklady Chemiczne Oswiecim, Bielsko- Biata |
Poland |
PVC |
| Companhia Industrial de Resinas
Sinteticas, CIRES SA, Estarreja,
Aveiro
|
Portugal |
PVC |
| GDP, Lisboa |
Portugal |
DEHP |
| Chemicke Zavody Novacke sp, Novaky, Stredosovensky |
Slovak Rep. |
PVC |
| Aiscondel, SA,
- Monzon del Rio Cinca,Huesca
- Vilaseca, Tarragona
|
Spain |
PVC |
| BASF Espanola SA, Tarragona |
Spain |
DEHP |
| Compania Espanola de Petroleos, SA, Luchana-Baracaldo,
Vizcaya |
Spain |
DEHP |
| Elf Atochem Espana SA,
- Hernani, Guipuzcoa
- Miranda de Ebro, Burgos
|
Spain |
PVC |
| Hispavic Industrial SA, (owned by Solvay) Martorell,
Barcelona |
Spain |
PVC |
| Hydro Plast AB, Stenungsund, Goteborg-Bohus |
Sweden |
PVC |
| Neste Oxo AB, Stenungsund, Gotegorg-Bohus |
Sweden |
DEHP |
| European Vinyls Corporation (Switzerland) AG, Sins,
Aargau |
Switzerland |
PVC |
| BP Chemicals Ltd, Hull, Humberside |
UK |
DEHP |
| European Vinyls Corporation (UK) Ltd,
- Barry, South Glamorgan, Wales
- Fleetwood, Lancashire
- Runcorn, Cheshire
|
UK |
PVC |
| Hydro Polymers Ltd, Newton Aycliffe, Durham |
UK |
PVC |
| Aristech Chemical Corporation, Chemicals Division,
Neville Island Pennsylvania |
USA |
DEHP |
| BASF Corporation, South Kearney New Jersey |
USA |
DEHP |
| Borden Chemicals and Plastics
Operating Limited Partnership,
- Geismar, Louisiana
- Illiopolis, Illinois
|
USA |
PVC |
| Certain Teed Coproration, Lake Charles, Louisiana |
USA |
PVC |
| Eastman Chemical Company, Tennessee
Eastman Division, Kingsport Tennessee
|
USA |
DEHP |
| Formosa Plastics Corporation,
- Baton Rouge, Louisiana
- Delaware City, Delaware
- Point Comfort, Texas
|
USA |
PVC |
| The Geon Company,
- Deer Park, Texas
- Henry Illinois
- Louisville Kentucky
- Pedricktown, New Jersey
|
USA |
PVC |
| Georgia Gulf Corporation, Delaware
City, Delaware
Plaquemine, Louisiana
|
USA |
PVC |
| The Goodyear Tire and Rubber
Company Chemical Division,
Niagara Falls, New York
|
USA |
PVC |
| Hatco Chemical Company, Fords, New Jersey |
USA |
DEHP |
| Huls America Inc, Chestertown, Maryland |
USA |
DEHP |
| Keysor-Century Corporation, Santa Clarita, California |
USA |
PVC |
| Occidental Chemical Corporation,
Polymers and Plastics, Vinyls
Division,
- Addis, Louisiana
- Burlington, New Jersey
- Pasadena, Texas
- Pottstown, Pennsylvania
|
USA |
PVC |
| Shintech Incorporated, Freeport, Texas |
USA |
PVC |
| Teknor Apex Company,
- Brownsville, Texas
- Hebronville, Massachusetts
|
USA |
DEHP |
| Union Carbide Corporation Solvents
and Intermediates, Texas City,
Texas
|
USA |
PVC |
| Vista Chemical Company, Olefins
& Vinyl Division,
Aberdeen, Mississippi
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
|
USA |
PVC |
| Westlake PVC Corporation,
- Calvert City, Kentucky
- Pace, Florida
|
USA |
PVC |
Source: SRI International, 1995 Directory of Chemical Producers, Europe,
and United States.,
Source: US Department of Health and Human Services, Toxicological Profile
for DEHP, April 1993.
US VCM and EDC Manufacturers
| Borden Chemicals and Plastics Geismar, LA |
USA |
EDC, VCM |
| Dow Chemicals USA, Freeport, TX and Oyster Creek,
TX |
USA |
EDC, VCM |
| Dow Chemicals USA, Plaquemine, LA |
USA |
EDC, VCM |
| Formosa Plastics Corp
Baton Rouge, LA |
USA |
EDC, VCM |
| Formosa Plastics Corp.
Point Comfort, TX |
USA |
EDC, VCM |
| Geon Vinyl (BFGoodrich)
La Porte, TX |
USA |
EDC, VCM |
| Georgia Gulf Corp. Plaquemine, LA |
USA |
EDC, VCM |
| Occidental Chemical Corp. Convent, LA |
USA |
EDC |
| Occidental Chemical Corp. Deer park, TX |
USA |
EDC, VCM |
| Oxymar, Ingleside, TX |
USA |
EDC, VCM |
| PPG Industries Inc.
Lake Charles, LA |
USA |
EDC, VCM |
| Vista Chemical Company
Lake Charles, LA |
USA |
EDC, VCM |
| Vulcan Chemicals
Geismar, LA |
USA |
EDC |
| Westlake Monomers Corp. Calvert City, KY |
USA |
EDC, VCM |
Source: Costner P et al. (1994) PVC: Primary Contributor to the US Dioxin
Burden, Greenpeace USA, Washington DC.
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14. Notes
1 Guillette et al. ,1994
2 Jobling et al, 1995
3 Fox, 1992, Geisy et. al., 1994
4 e.g. Carlsen et al. 1992, Auger et al, 1995
5 Giwercman and Skakkebaek, 1992
6 Harris et al., 1992
7 Danish EPA, 1995
8 e.g. Jacobson et al, 1985, Ando et al., 1986, Kanja et al, 1992, Koopman-Esseboom
et al., 1994
9 South West Environmental Protection Agency, 1995
10 Hall, 1992
11 US EPA, 1994
12 Colborn et. al, 1996, p. 212
13 Danish EPA, 1995, unless otherwise noted
14 Danish EPA, 1995
15 US Dept. of Health and Human Services, DEHP, 1993
16 Danish Technological Institute, 1996
17 German EPA, 1994
18 Modern Plastics, 1995
19 European Chemical News, 1996
20 Danish EPA, 1995
21 Swedish Parliamentary Standing Committee on Agriculture, 1995
22 Swedish Environment Minister Anna Lindh, November 1995
23 Sharpe et al, 1995
24 Colborn and Clement, 1992
25 Dr John Sumpter, of Brunel University, quoted in New Scientist, 1995
26 Kelce et al., 1995
27 Colborn et al., 1996
28 Carlsen et al., 1992, Auger et al., 1995, Irvine et al., 1996
29 Auger et al., 1995
30 Sharpe & Skakkabaek 1993, Auger et al., 1995, Irvine et al. 1996
31 see e.g. Sharpe & Skakkabaek, 1993
32 Arbeitsgemeinschaft PVC und Umwelt e.V., 1996
33 Auger et al. ,1995, Irvine et al., 1996
34 Mably et al., 1992c
35 Sharpe et al., 1995
36 Arbeitsgemeinschaft PVC und Umwelt e.V., 1996
37 Augur et al., 1995
38 Mably et al., 1992c, Sharpe et al., 1995
39 Colborn and Clement, 1992
40 Evers, 1989, Fluthwedel & Pohle, 1993
41 Jobling et al, 1995
42 Danish Technological Institute, 1996
43 Danish Technological Institute, 1996
44 Dow Chemical Company, 1981, Goldman, L., 1994
45 Egeland et al., 1994
46 Mably et al., 1991, Mably et al., 1992a
47 Mably et al., 1991, Mably et al., 1992c
48 Mably et al., 1991, Peterson et al., 1992, Mably et al., 1992b
49 Mably et al., 1991, Peterson et al., (1992)
50 Gray et al., 1995, Peterson et al., 1992, Mably et al., 1992a,b&c
51 Porterfield, 1994
52 Pluim et al., 1992, 1993
53 Porterfield, 1994
54 Iwata et al, 1993
55 Rappe, 1992, Henry et al, 1992
56 Allsopp et al., 1995
57 Evers, 1989
58 ICI, 1994
59 ICI, 1994
60 Stringer et al., 1995
61 Wenning et al., 1992
62 Fortuna, Judge, 1995
63 Environmental Ministry of Lower Saxony, 1994
64 Fluthwedel & Pohle, 1993
65 State Committee for Emission Protection, 1993
66 Wilken, 1994
67 German EPA press release, 1994
68 Angrick & Batz, 1994, U.Lahl, personal communication, 1993
69 Riss, A, 1990
70 Bokerman, 1994
71 Wagner et al, 1993, Danish Technological Institute, 1996
72 US EPA, 1994b
73 see e.g. Meek & Chan, 1994a,b&c
74 Jobling et al., 1995
75 Sharpe et al., 1995
76 Hansen & Grafton, 1994, Ema et al., 1995
77 Ema et al., 1994
78 German EPA, 1994
79 Deisder, 1991
80 Atlas et al., 1981
81 Jobling et. al. 1995
82 Sharman et al., 1994, Gilbert et al., 1994
83 Danish Technological Institute, 1996
84 German EPA, 1994
85 US Department of Health, 1993
86 German EPA, 1994
87 US Department of Health and Human Services, 1993, Danish Technological
Institute, 1996
88 US Department of Health and Human Services, 1993 89 Directive 92/69/EEC
90 Danish Technological Institute, 1996
91 German EPA, 1994
92 German EPA, 1994
93 Modern Plastics, 1995
94 Olympic Co-ordination Authority, 1996
95 Swedish Parliamentary Standing Committee on Agriculture, 1995
96 Horizon, 1996
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